as much superior to that of an artificer as in most parts of
Europe that of an artificer is to that of a labourer。 In China；
the great ambition of every man is to get possession of some
little bit of land； either in property or in lease； and leases
are there said to be granted upon very moderate terms； and to be
sufficiently secured to the lessees。 The Chinese have little
respect for foreign trade。 Your beggarly commerce！ was the
language in which the Mandarins of Pekin used to talk to Mr。 de
Lange； the Russian envoy； concerning it。 Except with Japan； the
Chinese carry on； themselves； and in their own bottoms； little or
no foreign trade； and it is only into one or two ports of their
kingdom that they even admit the ships of foreign nations。
Foreign trade therefore is； in China； every way confined within a
much narrower circle than that to which it would naturally extend
itself； if more freedom was allowed to it； either in their own
ships； or in those of foreign nations。
Manufactures； as in a small bulk they frequently contain a
great value； and can upon that account be transported at less
expense from one country to another than most parts of rude
produce； are； in almost all countries； the principal support of
foreign trade。 In countries； besides； less extensive and less
favourably circumstanced for inferior commerce than China； they
generally require the support of foreign trade。 Without an
extensive foreign market they could not well flourish； either in
countries so moderately extensive as to afford but a narrow home
market or in countries where the communication between one
province and another was so difficult as to render it impossible
for the goods of any particular place to enjoy the whole of that
home market which the country could afford。 The perfection of
manufacturing industry； it must be remembered； depends altogether
upon the division of labour； and the degree to which the division
of labour can be introduced into any manufacture is necessarily
regulated； it has already been shown； by the extent of the
market。 But the great extent of the empire of China； the vast
multitude of its inhabitants； the variety of climate； and
consequently of productions in its different provinces； and the
easy communication by means of water carriage between the greater
part of them； render the home market of that country of so great
extent as to be alone sufficient to support very great
manufactures； and to admit of very considerable subdivisions of
labour。 The home market of China is； perhaps； in extent； not much
inferior to the market of all the different countries of Europe
put together。 A more extensive foreign trade； however； which to
this great home market added the foreign market of all the rest
of the world… especially if any considerable part of this trade
was carried on in Chinese ships… could scarce fail to increase
very much the manufactures of China； and to improve very much the
productive powers of its manufacturing industry。 By a more
extensive navigation； the Chinese would naturally learn the art
of using and constructing themselves all the different machines
made use of in other countries； as well as the other improvements
of art and industry which are practised in all the different
parts of the world。 Upon their present plan they have little
opportunity except that of the Japanese。
The policy of ancient Egypt too； and that of the Gentoo
government of Indostan； seem to have favoured agriculture more
than all other employments。
Both in ancient Egypt and Indostan the whole body of the
people was divided into different castes or tribes； each of which
was confined； from father to son； to a particular employment or
class of employments。 The son of a priest was necessarily a
priest； the son of a soldier； a soldier； the son of a labourer； a
labourer； the son of a weaver； a weaver； the son of a tailor； a
tailor； etc。 In both countries； the caste of the priests held the
highest rank； and that of the soldiers the next； and in both
countries； the caste of the farmers and labourers was superior to
the castes of merchants and manufacturers。
The government of both countries was particularly attentive
to the interest of agriculture。 The works constructed by the
ancient sovereigns of Egypt for the proper distribution of the
waters of the Nile were famous in antiquity； and the ruined
remains of some of them are still the admiration of travellers。
Those of the same kind which were constructed by the ancient
sovereigns of Indostan for the proper distribution of the waters
of the Ganges as well as of many other rivers； though they have
been less celebrated； seem to have been equally great。 Both
countries； accordingly； though subject occasionally to dearths；
have been famous for their great fertility。 Though both were
extremely populous； yet； in years of moderate plenty； they were
both able to export great quantities of grain to their
neighbours。
The ancient Egyptians had a superstitious aversion to the
sea； and as the Gentoo religion does not permit its followers to
light a fire； nor consequently to dress any victuals upon the
water； it in effect prohibits them from all distant sea voyages。
Both the Egyptians and Indians must have depended almost
altogether upon the navigation of other nations for the
exportation of their surplus produce； and this dependency； as it
must have confined the market； so it must have discouraged the
increase of this surplus produce。 It must have discouraged； too；
the increase of the manufactured produce more than that of the
rude produce。 Manufactures require a much more extensive market
than the most important parts of the rude produce of the land。 A
single shoemaker will make more than three hundred pairs of shoes
in the year； and his own family will not； perhaps； wear out six
pairs。 Unless therefore he has the custom of at least fifty such
families as his own； he cannot dispose of the whole produce of
his own labour。 The most numerous class of artificers will
seldom； in a large country； make more than one in fifty or one in
a hundred of the whole number of families contained in it。 But in
such large countries as France and England； the number of people
employed in agriculture has by some authors been computed at a
half； by others at a third； and by no author that I know of； at
less than a fifth of the whole inhabitants of the country。 But as
the produce of the agriculture of both France and England is； the
far greater part of it； consumed at home； each person employed in
it must； according to these computations； require little more
than the custom of one； two； or at most； of four such families as
his own in order to dispose of the whole produce of his own
labour。 Agriculture； therefore； can support itself under the
discouragement of a confined market much better than
manufactures。 In both ancient Egypt and Indostan； indeed； the
confinement of the foreign market was in some measure compensated
by the conveniency of many inland navigations； which opened； in
the most advantageous manner； the whole extent of the home market
to every part of the produce of every different district of those
countries。 The great extent of Indostan； too； rendered the home
market of that country very great； and sufficient to support a
great variety of manufactures。 But the small extent of ancient
Egypt； which was never equal to England； must at all times have
rendered the home market of that country too narrow for
supporting any great variety of manufactures。 Bengal；
accordingly； the province of Indostan； which commonly exports the
greatest quantity of rice； has always been more remarkable for
the exportation of a great variety of manufactures than for that
of its grain。 Ancient Egypt； on the contrary； though it exported
some manufactures； fine linen in particular； as well as some
other goods； was always most distinguished for its great
exportation of grain。 It was long the granary of the Roman
empire。
The sovereigns of China； of ancient Egypt； and of the
different kingdoms into which Indostan has at different times
been divided； have always derived the whole； or by far the most
considerable part； of their revenue from some sort of land tax or
land rent。 This land tax or land rent； like the tithe in Europe；
consisted in a certain proportion； a fifth； it is said； of the
produce of the land； which was either delivered in kind； or paid
in money； according to a certain valuation； and which therefore
varied from year to year according to all the variations of the
produce。 It was natural therefore that the sovereigns of those
countries should be particularly attentive to the interests of
agriculture； upon the prosperity or declension of which
immediately depended the yearly increase or diminution of their
own revenue。
The policy of the ancient republics of Greece； and that of
Rome； though it honoured agriculture more than manufactures or
foreign trade； yet seems rather to have discouraged the latter
employments than to have given any direct or intentional
encouragement to the former。 In several of the ancient states of
Greece； foreign trade was prohibited altogether； and in several
others the employments of artificers and manufacturers were
considered as hurtful to the strength and agility of the human
body； as rendering it incapable of those habits which their
military and gymnastic exercises endeavoured to form in it； and
as thereby disqualifying it more or less for undergoing the
fatigues and encountering the dangers of war。 Such occupations
were considered as fit only for slaves； and the free citizens of
the state were prohibited from exercising them。 Even in those
states where no such prohibition took place； as in Rome and
Athens； the great body of the people were in effect excluded from
all the trades which are； now commonly exercised by the lower
sort of the inhabitants of towns。 Such trades were； at Athens and
Rome； all occupied by the slaves of the rich； who exercised them
for the benefit of