sort of the inhabitants of towns。 Such trades were； at Athens and
Rome； all occupied by the slaves of the rich； who exercised them
for the benefit of their masters； whose wealth； power； and
protection made it almost impossible for a poor freeman to find a
market for his work； when it came into competition with that of
the slaves of the rich。 Slaves； however； are very seldom
inventive； and all the most important improvements； either in
machinery； or in the arrangement and distribution of work which
facilitate and abridge labour； have been the discoveries of
freemen。 Should a slave propose any improvement of this kind； his
master would be very apt to consider the proposal as the
suggestion of laziness； and a desire to save his own labour at
the master's expense。 The poor slave； instead of reward； would
probably meet with much abuse； perhaps with some punishment。 In
the manufactures carried on by slaves； therefore； more labour
must generally have been employed to execute the same quantity of
work than in those carried on by freemen。 The work of the former
must； upon that account； generally have been dearer than that of
the latter。 The Hungarian mines； it is remarked by Mr。
Montesquieu； though not richer； have always been wrought with
less expense； and therefore with more profit； than the Turkish
mines in their neighbourhood。 The Turkish mines are wrought by
slaves； and the arms of those slaves are the only machines which
the Turks have ever thought of employing。 The Hungarian mines are
wrought by freemen； who employ a great deal of machinery； by
which they facilitate and abridge their own labour。 From the very
little that is known about the price of manufactures in the times
of the Greeks and Romans； it would appear that those of the finer
sort were excessively dear。 Silk sold for its weight in gold。 It
was not； indeed； in those times a European manufacture； and as it
was all brought from the East Indies； the distance of the
carriage may in some measure account for the greatness of price。
The price； however； which a lady； it is said； would sometimes pay
for a piece of very fine linen； seems to have been equally
extravagant； and as linen was always either a European； or at
farthest； an Egyptian manufacture； this high price can be
accounted for only by the great expense of the labour which must
have been employed about it； and the expense of this labour again
could arise from nothing but the awkwardness of the machinery
which it made use of。 The price of fine woollens too； though not
quite so extravagant； seems however to have been much above that
of the present times。 Some cloths； we are told by Pliny； dyed in
a particular manner； cost a hundred denarii； or three pounds six
shillings and eightpence the pound weight。 Others dyed in another
manner cost a thousand denarii the pound weight； or thirty…three
pounds six shillings and eightpence。 The Roman pound； it must be
remembered； contained only twelve of our avoirdupois ounces。 This
high price； indeed； seems to have been principally owing to the
dye。 But had not the cloths themselves been much dearer than any
which are made in the present times； so very expensive a dye
would not probably have been bestowed upon them。 The
disproportion would have been too great between the value of the
accessory and that of the principal。 The price mentioned by the
same author of some Triclinaria； a sort of woollen pillows or
cushions made use of to lean upon as they reclined upon their
couches at table； passes all credibility； some of them being said
to have cost more than thirty thousand； others more than three
hundred thousand pounds。 This high price； too； is not said to
have arisen from the dye。 In the dress of the people of fashion
of both sexes there seems to have been much less variety； it is
observed by Doctor Arbuthnot； in ancient than in modern times；
and the very little variety which we find in that of the ancient
statues confirms his observation。 He infers from this that their
dress must upon the whole have been cheaper than ours； but the
conclusion does not seem to follow。 When the expense of
fashionable dress is very great； the variety must be very small。
But when； by the improvements in the productive powers of
manufacturing art and industry； the expense of any one dress
comes to be very moderate； the variety will naturally be very
great。 The rich； not being able to distinguish themselves by the
expense of any one dress； will naturally endeavour to do so by
the multitude and variety of their dresses。
The greatest and most important branch of the commerce of
every nation； it has already been observed； is that which is
carried on between the inhabitants of the town and those of the
country。 The inhabitants of the town draw from the country the
rude produce which constitutes both the materials of their work
and the fund of their subsistence； and they pay for this rude
produce by sending back to the country a certain portion of it
manufactured and prepared for immediate use。 The trade which is
carried on between these two different sets of people consists
ultimately in a certain quantity of rude produce exchanged for a
certain quantity of manufactured produce。 The dearer the latter；
therefore； the cheaper the former； and whatever tends in any
country to raise the price of manufactured produce tends to lower
that of the rude produce of the land； and thereby to discourage
agriculture。 The smaller the quantity of manufactured produce
which in any given quantity of rude produce； or； what comes to
the same thing； which the price of any given quantity of rude
produce is capable of purchasing； the smaller the exchangeable
value of that given quantity of rude produce； the smaller the
encouragement which either the landlord has to increase its
quantity by improving or the farmer by cultivating the land。
Whatever； besides； tends to diminish in any country the number of
artificers and manufacturers； tends to diminish the home market；
the most important of all markets for the rude produce of the
land； and thereby still further to discourage agriculture。
Those systems； therefore； which； preferring agriculture to
all other employments； in order to promote it； impose restraints
upon manufactures and foreign trade； act contrary to the very end
which they propose； and indirectly discourage that very species
of industry which they mean to promote。 They are so far； perhaps；
more inconsistent than even the mercantile system。 That system；
by encouraging manufactures and foreign trade more than
agriculture； turns a certain portion of the capital of the
society from supporting a more advantageous； to support a less
advantageous species of industry。 But still it really and in the
end encourages that species of industry which it means to
promote。 Those agricultural systems； on the contrary； really and
in the end discourage their own favourite species of industry。
It is thus that every system which endeavours； either by
extraordinary encouragements to draw towards a particular species
of industry a greater share of the capital of the society than
what would naturally go to it； or； by extraordinary restraints；
force from a particular species of industry some share of the
capital which would otherwise be employed in it； is in reality
subversive of the great purpose which it means to promote。 It
retards； instead of accelerating； the progress of the society
towards real wealth and greatness； and diminishes； instead of
increasing； the real value of the annual produce of its land and
labour。
All systems either of preference or of restraint； therefore；
being thus completely taken away； the obvious and simple system
of natural liberty establishes itself of its own accord。 Every
man； as long as he does not violate the laws of justice； is left
perfectly free to pursue his own interest his own way； and to
bring both his industry and capital into competition with those
of any other man； or order of men。 The sovereign is completely
discharged from a duty； in the attempting to perform which he
must always be exposed to innumerable delusions； and for the
proper performance of which no human wisdom or knowledge could
ever be sufficient； the duty of superintending the industry of
private people； and of directing it towards the employments most
suitable to the interest of the society。 According to the system
of natural liberty； the sovereign has only three duties to attend
to； three duties of great importance； indeed； but plain and
intelligible to common understandings： first； the duty of
protecting the society from violence and invasion of other
independent societies； secondly； the duty of protecting； as far
as possible； every member of the society from the injustice or
oppression of every other member of it； or the duty of
establishing an exact administration of justice； and； thirdly；
the duty of erecting and maintaining certain public works and
certain public institutions which it can never be for the
interest of any individual； or small number of individuals； to
erect and maintain； because the profit could never repay the
expense to any individual or small number of individuals； though
it may frequently do much more than repay it to a great society。
The proper performance of those several duties of the
sovereign necessarily supposes a certain expense； and this
expense again necessarily requires a certain revenue to support
it。 In the following book； therefore； I shall endeavour to
explain； first； what are the necessary expenses of the sovereign
or commonwealth； and which of those expenses ought to be defrayed
by the general contribution of the whole society； and which of
them by that of some particular part only； or of some particular
members of the society； secondly； what are the different methods
in which the whole society may be made to contribute towards
defraying the expenses incumbent on the whole society； and what
are the principal advantages and inconveniences of each of those
methods； and thirdly；