of these opinions shall we at present object。 We shall only remark
that it must be confessed that； if we are to discuss the subject of
cause at all； we cannot proceed more securely than with the guidance
of the analogy subsisting between nature and such products of
design… these being the only products whose causes and modes of
organization are pletely known to us。 Reason would be unable to
satisfy her own requirements； if she passed from a causality which she
does know； to obscure and indemonstrable principles of explanation
which she does not know。
According to the physico…theological argument； the connection and
harmony existing in the world evidence the contingency of the form
merely； but not of the matter； that is； of the substance of the world。
To establish the truth of the latter opinion； it would be necessary to
prove that all things would be in themselves incapable of this harmony
and order； unless they were； even as regards their substance； the
product of a supreme wisdom。 But this would require very different
grounds of proof from those presented by the analogy with human art。
This proof can at most； therefore； demonstrate the existence of an
architect of the world； whose efforts are limited by the
capabilities of the material with which he works； but not of a creator
of the world； to whom all things are subject。 Thus this argument is
utterly insufficient for the task before us… a demonstration of the
existence of an all…sufficient being。 If we wish to prove the
contingency of matter； we must have recourse to a transcendental
argument； which the physicotheological was constructed expressly to
avoid。
We infer； from the order and design visible in the universe； as a
disposition of a thoroughly contingent character； the existence of a
cause proportionate thereto。 The conception of this cause must contain
certain determinate qualities； and it must therefore be regarded as
the conception of a being which possesses all power； wisdom； and so
on； in one word； all perfection… the conception； that is； of an
all…sufficient being。 For the predicates of very great； astonishing；
or immeasurable power and excellence； give us no determinate
conception of the thing； nor do they inform us what the thing may be
in itself。 They merely indicate the relation existing between the
magnitude of the object and the observer； who pares it with himself
and with his own power of prehension； and are mere expressions of
praise and reverence； by which the object is either magnified； or
the observing subject depreciated in relation to the object。 Where
we have to do with the magnitude （of the perfection） of a thing； we
can discover no determinate conception； except that which
prehends all possible perfection or pleteness； and it is only
the total （omnitudo） of reality which is pletely determined in
and through its conception alone。
Now it cannot be expected that any one will be bold enough to
declare that he has a perfect insight into the relation which the
magnitude of the world he contemplates bears （in its extent as well as
in its content） to omnipotence； into that of the order and design in
the world to the highest wisdom； and that of the unity of the world to
the absolute unity of a Supreme Being。 Physico…theology is therefore
incapable of presenting a determinate conception of a supreme cause of
the world； and is therefore insufficient as a principle of theology… a
theology which is itself to be the basis of religion。
The attainment of absolute totality is pletely impossible on
the path of empiricism。 And yet this is the path pursued in the
physicotheological argument。 What means shall we employ to bridge
the abyss？
After elevating ourselves to admiration of the magnitude of the
power； wisdom； and other attributes of the author of the world； and
finding we can advance no further； we leave the argument on
empirical grounds； and proceed to infer the contingency of the world
from the order and conformity to aims that are observable in it。
From this contingency we infer； by the help of transcendental
conceptions alone； the existence of something absolutely necessary；
and； still advancing； proceed from the conception of the absolute
necessity of the first cause to the pletely determined or
determining conception thereof… the conception of an all…embracing
reality。 Thus the physico…theological； failing in its undertaking；
recurs in its embarrassment to the cosmological argument； and； as this
is merely the ontological argument in disguise； it executes its design
solely by the aid of pure reason； although it at first professed to
have no connection with this faculty and to base its entire
procedure upon experience alone。
The physico…theologians have therefore no reason to regard with such
contempt the transcendental mode of argument； and to look down upon
it； with the conceit of clear…sighted observers of nature； as the
brain…cobweb of obscure speculatists。 For； if they reflect upon and
examine their own arguments； they will find that； after following
for some time the path of nature and experience； and discovering
themselves no nearer their object； they suddenly leave this path and
pass into the region of pure possibility； where they hope to reach
upon the wings of ideas what had eluded all their empirical
investigations。 Gaining； as they think； a firm footing after this
immense leap； they extend their determinate conception… into the
possession of which they have e； they know not how… over the
whole sphere of creation； and explain their ideal； which is entirely a
product of pure reason； by illustrations drawn from experience… though
in a degree miserably unworthy of the grandeur of the object； while
they refuse to acknowledge that they have arrived at this cognition or
hypothesis by a very different road from that of experience。
Thus the physico…theological is based upon the cosmological； and
this upon the ontological proof of the existence of a Supreme Being；
and as besides these three there is no other path open to
speculative reason； the ontological proof； on the ground of pure
conceptions of reason； is the only possible one； if any proof of a
proposition so far transcending the empirical exercise of the
understanding is possible at all。
SECTION VII。 Critique of all Theology based upon Speculative
Principles of Reason。
If by the term theology I understand the cognition of a primal
being； that cognition is based either upon reason alone （theologia
rationalis） or upon revelation （theologia revelata）。 The former
cogitates its object either by means of pure transcendental
conceptions； as an ens originarium； realissimum； ens entium； and is
termed transcendental theology； or； by means of a conception derived
from the nature of our own mind； as a supreme intelligence； and must
then be entitled natural theology。 The person who believes in a
transcendental theology alone； is termed a deist； he who
acknowledges the possibility of a natural theology also； a theist。 The
former admits that we can cognize by pure reason alone the existence
of a Supreme Being； but at the same time maintains that our conception
of this being is purely transcendental； and that all we can say of
it is that it possesses all reality； without being able to define it
more closely。 The second asserts that reason is capable of
presenting us； from the analogy with nature； with a more definite
conception of this being； and that its operations； as the cause of all
things； are the results of intelligence and free will。 The former
regards the Supreme Being as the cause of the world… whether by the
necessity of his nature； or as a free agent； is left undetermined； the
latter considers this being as the author of the world。
Transcendental theology aims either at inferring the existence of
a Supreme Being from a general experience； without any closer
reference to the world to which this experience belongs； and in this
case it is called cosmotheology； or it endeavours to cognize the
existence of such a being； through mere conceptions； without the aid
of experience； and is then termed ontotheology。
Natural theology infers the attributes and the existence of an
author of the world； from the constitution of； the order and unity
observable in； the world； in which two modes of causality must be
admitted to exist… those of nature and freedom。 Thus it rises from
this world to a supreme intelligence； either as the principle of all
natural； or of all moral order and perfection。 In the former case it
is termed physico…theology； in the latter； ethical or moral…theology。*
*Not theological ethics； for this science contains ethical laws；
which presuppose the existence of a Supreme Governor of the world；
while moral…theology； on the contrary； is the expression of a
conviction of the existence of a Supreme Being； founded upon ethical
laws。
As we are wont to understand by the term God not merely an eternal
nature； the operations of which are insensate and blind； but a Supreme
Being； who is the free and intelligent author of all things； and as it
is this latter view alone that can be of interest to humanity； we
might； in strict rigour； deny to the deist any belief in God at all；
and regard him merely as a maintainer of the existence of a primal
being or thing… the supreme cause of all other things。 But； as no
one ought to be blamed； merely because he does not feel himself
justified in maintaining a certain opinion； as if he altogether denied
its truth and asserted the opposite； it is more correct… as it is less
harsh… to say； the deist believes in a God； the theist in a living God
（summa intelligentia）。 We shall now proceed to investigate the sources
of all these attempts of reason to establish the existence of a
Supreme Being。
It may be sufficient in this place to define theoretical knowledge
or cognition as knowledge of that which is； and practical knowledge as
knowledge of that which ought to be。 In this view； the theoretical
employment of reason is that by which I cognize a priori （as
necessary） that something is； while the practical is that by which I
cognize a priori what ought to happen。 Now； if it is an indu