cultivating； within a limited time； a certain proportion of his
lands； and which in case of failure； declares those neglected
lands grantable to any other person； though it has not； perhaps；
been very strictly executed； has； however； had some effect。
Secondly； in Pennsylvania there is no right of
primogeniture； and lands； like movables； are divided equally
among all the children of the family。 In three of the provinces
of New England the oldest has only a double share； as in the
Mosaical law。 Though in those provinces； therefore； too great a
quantity of land should sometimes be engrossed by a particular
individual； it is likely； in the course of a generation or two；
to be sufficiently divided again。 In the other English colonies；
indeed； the right of primogeniture takes place； as in the law of
England。 But in all the English colonies the tenure of the lands；
which are all held by free socage； facilitates alienation； and
the grantee of any extensive tract of land generally finds it for
his interest to alienate； as fast as he can； the greater part of
it； reserving only a small quit…rent。 In the Spanish and
Portuguese colonies； what is called the right of Majorazzo takes
place in the succession of all those great estates to which any
title of honour is annexed。 Such estates go all to one person；
and are in effect entailed and unalienable。 The French colonies；
indeed； are subject to the custom of Paris； which； in the
inheritance of land； is much more favourable to the younger
children than the law of England。 But in the French colonies； if
any part of an estate； held by the noble tenure of chivalry and
homage； is alienated； it is； for a limited time； subject to the
right of redemption； either by the heir of the superior or by the
heir of the family； and all the largest estates of the country
are held by such noble tenures； which necessarily embarrass
alienation。 But in a new colony a great uncultivated estate is
likely to be much more speedily divided by alienation than by
succession。 The plenty and cheapness of good land； it has already
been observed； are the principal causes of the rapid prosperity
of new colonies。 The engrossing of land； in effect； destroys this
plenty and cheapness。 The engrossing of uncultivated land；
besides； is the greatest obstruction to its improvement。 But the
labour that is employed in the improvement and cultivation of
land affords the greatest and most valuable produce to the
society。 The produce of labour； in this case； pays not only its
own wages； and the profit of the stock which employs it； but the
rent of the land too upon which it is employed。 The labour of the
English colonists； therefore； being more employed in the
improvement and cultivation of land； is likely to afford a
greater and more valuable produce than that of any of the other
three nations； which； by the engrossing of land； is more or less
diverted towards other employments。
Thirdly； the labour of the English colonists is not only
likely to afford a greater and more valuable produce； but； in
consequence of the moderation of their taxes； a greater
proportion of this produce belongs to themselves； which they may
store up and employ in putting into motion a still greater
quantity of labour。 The English colonists have never yet
contributed anything towards the defence of the mother country；
or towards the support of its civil government。 They themselves；
on the contrary； have hitherto been defended almost entirely at
the expense of the mother country。 But the expense of fleets and
armies is out of all proportion greater than the necessary
expense of civil government。 The expense of their own civil
government has always been very moderate。 It has generally been
confined to what was necessary for paying competent salaries to
the governor； to the judges； and to some other officers of
police； and for maintaining a few of the most useful public
works。 The expense of the civil establishment of Massachusetts
Bay； before the commencement of the present disturbances； used to
be but about L18；000 a year。 That of New Hampshire and Rhode
Island； L3500 each。 That of Connecticut； L4000。 That of New York
and Pennsylvania； L4500 each。 That of New Jersey； L1200。 That of
Virginia and South Carolina； L8000 each。 The civil establishments
of Nova Scotia and Georgia are partly supported by an annual
grant of Parliament。 But Nova Scotia pays； besides； about L7000 a
year towards the public expenses of the colony； and Georgia about
L2500 a year。 All the different civil establishments in North
America； in short； exclusive of those of Maryland and North
Carolina； of which no exact account has been got； did not； before
the commencement of the present disturbances； cost the
inhabitants above L64；700 a year； an ever…memorable example at
how small an expense three millions of people may not only be
governed； but well governed。 The most important part of the
expense of government； indeed； that of defence and protection；
has constantly fallen upon the mother country。 The ceremonial；
too； of the civil government in the colonies； upon the reception
of a new governor； upon the opening of a new assembly； etc。；
though sufficiently decent； is not accompanied with any expensive
pomp or parade。 Their ecclesiastical government is conducted upon
a plan equally frugal。 Tithes are unknown among them； and their
clergy； who are far from being numerous； are maintained either by
moderate stipends； or by the voluntary contributions of the
people。 The power of Spain and Portugal； on the contrary； derives
some support from the taxes levied upon their colonies。 France；
indeed； has never drawn any considerable revenue from its
colonies； the taxes which it levies upon them being generally
spent among them。 But the colony government of all these three
nations is conducted upon a much more expensive ceremonial。 The
sums spent upon the reception of a new viceroy of Peru； for
example； have frequently been enormous。 Such ceremonials are not
only real taxes paid by the rich colonists upon those particular
occasions； but they serve to introduce among them the habit of
vanity and expense upon all other occasions。 They are not only
very grievous occasional taxes； but they contribute to establish
perpetual taxes of the same kind still more grievous； the ruinous
taxes of private luxury and extravagance。 In the colonies of all
those three nations too； the ecclesiastical government is
extremely oppressive。 Tithes take place in all of them； and are
levied with the utmost rigour in those of Spain and Portugal。 All
of them； besides； are oppressed with a numerous race of mendicant
friars； whose beggary being not only licensed but consecrated by
religion； is a most grievous tax upon the poor people； who are
most carefully taught that it is a duty to give； and a very great
sin to refuse them their charity。 Over and above all this； the
clergy are； in all of them； the greatest engrossers of land。
Fourthly； in the disposal of their surplus produce； or of
what is over and above their own consumption； the English
colonies have been more favoured； and have been allowed a more
extensive market； than those of any other European nation。 Every
European nation has endeavoured more or less to monopolise to
itself the commerce of its colonies； and； upon that account； has
prohibited the ships of foreign nations from trading to them； and
has prohibited them from importing European goods from any
foreign nation。 But the manner in which this monopoly has been
exercised in different nations has been very different。
Some nations have given up the whole commerce of their
colonies to an exclusive company； of whom the colonists were
obliged to buy all such European goods as they wanted； and to
whom they were obliged to sell the whole of their own surplus
produce。 It was the interest of the company； therefore； not only
to sell the former as dear； and to buy the latter as cheap as
possible； but to buy no more of the latter； even at this low
price than what they could dispose of for a very high price in
Europe。 It was their interest； not only to degrade in all cases
the value of the surplus produce of the colony； but in many cases
to discourage and keep down the natural increase of its quantity。
Of all the expedients that can well be contrived to stunt the
natural growth of a new colony； that of an exclusive company is
undoubtedly the most effectual。 This； however； has been the
policy of Holland； though their company； in the course of the
present century； has given up in many respects the exertion of
their exclusive privilege。 This； too； was the policy of Denmark
till the reign of the late king。 It has occasionally been the
policy of France； and of late； since 1755； after it had been
abandoned by all other nations on account of its absurdity； it
has become the policy of Portugal with regard at least to two of
the principal provinces of Brazil； Fernambuco and Marannon。
Other nations； without establishing an exclusive company；
have confined the whole commerce of their colonies to a
particular port of the mother country； from whence no ship was
allowed to sail； but either in a fleet and at a particular
season； or； if single； in consequence of a particular licence；
which in most cases was very well paid for。 This policy opened；
indeed； the trade of the colonies to all the natives of the
mother country； provided they traded from the proper port； at the
proper season； and in the proper vessels。 But as all the
different merchants； who joined their stocks in order to fit out
those licensed vessels； would find it for their interest to act
in concert； the trade which was carried on in this manner would
necessarily be conducted very nearly upon the same principles as
that of an exclusive company。 The profit of those merchants would
be almost equally exorbitant and oppressive。 The colonies would
be ill supplied； and would be obliged both to buy very dear； and
to sell very cheap。 This； however； till within these few years；
h