commerce of any kind。 Their commerce was carried on by barter。 A
sort of wooden spade was their principal instrument of
agriculture。 Sharp stones served them for knives and hatchets to
cut with； fish bones and the hard sinews of certain animals
served them for needles to sew with； and these seem to have been
their principal instruments of trade。 In this state of things； it
seems impossible that either of those empires could have been so
much improved or so well cultivated as at present； when they are
plentifully furnished with all sorts of European cattle； and when
the use of iron； of the plough； and of many of the arts of
Europe； has been introduced among them。 But the populousness of
every country must be in proportion to the degree of its
improvement and cultivation。 In spite of the cruel destruction of
the natives which followed the conquest； these two great empires
are； probably； more populous now than they ever were before： and
the people are surely very different； for we must acknowledge； I
apprehend； that the Spanish creoles are in many respects superior
to the ancient Indians。
After the settlements of the Spaniards； that of the
Portuguese in Brazil is the oldest of any European nation in
America。 But as for a long time after the first discovery neither
gold nor silver mines were found in it； and as it afforded； upon
that account； little or no revenue to the crown； it was for a
long time in a great measure neglected； and during this state of
neglect it grew up to be a great and powerful colony。 While
Portugal was under the dominion of Spain； Brazil was attacked by
the Dutch； who got possession of seven of the fourteen provinces
into which it is divided。 They expected soon to conquer the other
seven； when Portugal recovered its independency by the elevation
of the family of Braganza to the throne。 The Dutch then； as
enemies to the Spaniards； became friends to the Portuguese； who
were likewise the enemies of the Spaniards。 They agreed；
therefore； to leave that part of Brazil； which they had not
conquered； to the King of Portugal； who agreed to leave that part
which they had conquered to them； as a matter not worth disputing
about with such good allies。 But the Dutch government soon began
to oppress the Portuguese colonists； who； instead of amusing
themselves with complaints； took arms against their new masters；
and by their own valour and resolution； with the connivance；
indeed； but without any avowed assistance from the mother
country； drove them out of Brazil。 The Dutch； therefore； finding
it impossible to keep any part of the country to themselves； were
contented that it should be entirely restored to the crown of
Portugal。 In this colony there are said to be more than six
hundred thousand people； either Portuguese or descended from
Portuguese； creoles； mulattoes； and a mixed race between
Portuguese and Brazilians。 No one colony in America is supposed
to contain so great a number of people of European extraction。
Towards the end of the fifteenth； and during the greater
part of the sixteenth century； Spain and Portugal were the two
great naval powers upon the ocean； for though the commerce of
Venice extended to every part of Europe； its fleets had scarce
ever sailed beyond the Mediterranean。 The Spaniards； in virtue of
the first discovery； claimed all America as their own； and though
they could not hinder so great a naval power as that of Portugal
from settling in Brazil； such was； at that time； the terror of
their name； that the greater part of the other nations of Europe
were afraid to establish themselves in any other part of that
great continent。 The French； who attempted to settle in Florida；
were all murdered by the Spaniards。 But the declension of the
naval power of this latter nation； in consequence of the defeat
or miscarriage of what they called their Invincible Armada； which
happened towards the end of the sixteenth century； put it out of
their power to obstruct any longer the settlements of the other
European nations。 In the course of the seventeenth century；
therefore； the English； French； Dutch； Danes； and Swedes； all the
great nations who had any ports upon the ocean； attempted to make
some settlements in the new world。
The Swedes established themselves in New Jersey； and the
number of Swedish families still to be found there sufficiently
demonstrates that this colony was very likely to prosper had it
been protected by the mother country。 But being neglected by
Sweden； it was soon swallowed up by the Dutch colony of New York；
which again； in 1674； fell under the dominion of the English。
The small islands of St。 Thomas and Santa Cruz are the only
countries in the new world that have ever been possessed By the
Danes。 These little settlements； too； were under the government
of an exclusive company； which had the sole right； both of
purchasing the surplus produce of the colonists； and of supplying
them with such goods of other countries as they wanted； and
which； therefore； both in its purchases and sales； had not only
the power of oppressing them； but the greatest temptation to do
so。 The government of an exclusive company of merchants is；
perhaps； the worst of all governments for any country whatever。
It was not； however； able to stop altogether the progress of
these colonies； though it rendered it more slow and languid。 The
late King of Denmark dissolved this company； and since that time
the prosperity of these colonies has been very great。
The Dutch settlements in the West； as well as those in the
East Indies； were originally put under the government of an
exclusive company。 The progress of some of them； therefore；
though it has been considerable； in comparison with that of
almost any country that has been long peopled and established；
has been languid and slow in comparison with that of the greater
part of new colonies。 The colony of Surinam； though very
considerable； is still inferior to the greater part of the sugar
colonies of the other European nations。 The colony of Nova
Belgia； now divided into the two provinces of New York and New
Jersey； would probably have soon become considerable too； even
though it had remained under the government of the Dutch。 The
plenty and cheapness of good land are such powerful causes of
prosperity that the very worst government is scarce capable of
checking altogether the efficacy of their operation。 The great
distance； too； from the mother country would enable the colonists
to evade more or less； by smuggling； the monopoly which the
company enjoyed against them。 At present the company allows all
Dutch ships to trade to Surinam upon paying two and a half per
cent upon the value of their cargo for a licence； and only
reserves to itself exclusively the direct trade from Africa to
America； which consists almost entirely in the slave trade。 This
relaxation in the exclusive privileges of the company is probably
the principal cause of that degree of prosperity which that
colony at present enjoys。 Curacoa and Eustatia； the two principal
islands belonging to the Dutch； are free ports open to the ships
of all nations； and this freedom； in the midst of better colonies
whose ports are open to those of one nation only； has been the
great cause of the prosperity of those two barren islands。
The French colony of Canada was； during the greater part of
the last century； and some part of the present； under the
government of an exclusive company。 Under so unfavourable an
administration its progress was necessarily very slow in
comparison with that of other new colonies； but it became much
more rapid when this company was dissolved after the fall of what
is called the Mississippi scheme。 When the English got possession
of this country； they found in it near double the number of
inhabitants which Father Charlevoix had assigned to it between
twenty and thirty years before。 That Jesuit had travelled over
the whole country； and had no inclination to represent it as less
considerable than it really was。
The French colony of St。 Domingo was established by pirates
and freebooters； who； for a long time； neither required the
protection； nor acknowledged the authority of France； and when
that race of banditti became so far citizens as to acknowledge
this authority； it was for a long time necessary to exercise it
with very great gentleness。 During this period the population and
improvement of this colony increased very fast。 Even the
oppression of the exclusive company； to which it was for some
time subjected； with all the other colonies of France； though it
no doubt retarded； had not been able to stop its progress
altogether。 The course of its prosperity returned as soon as it
was relieved from that oppression。 It is now the most important
of the sugar colonies of the West Indies； and its produce is said
to be greater than that of all the English sugar colonies put
together。 The other sugar colonies of France are in general all
very thriving。
But there are no colonies of which the progress has been
more rapid than that of the English in North America。
Plenty of good land； and liberty to manage their own affairs
their own way； seem to be the two great causes of the prosperity
of all new colonies。
In the plenty of good land the English colonies of North
America； though no doubt very abundantly provided； are however
inferior to those of the Spaniards and Portuguese； and not
superior to some of those possessed by the French before the late
war。 But the political institutions of the English colonies have
been more favourable to the improvement and cultivation of this
land than those of any of the other three nations。
First； the engrossing of uncultivated land； though it has by
no means been prevented altogether； has been more restrained in
the English colonies than in any other。 The colony law which
imposes upon every proprietor the obligation of improving and
cultivating； within a limited time； a certain proportion of his
lands； and which in cas