as their deliverer： and Dionysius on his return from Italy found himself compelled to quit Syracuse （B。C。 356）； leaving Dion undisputed master of the city。 The latter was now in a condition to carry out all those exalted notions of political life which he had sought to instil into the mind of Dionysius。 He seems to have contemplated some political changes； but his immediate and practical acts were tyrannical； and were rendered still more unpopular by his overbearing manners。 His unpopularity continued to increase； till at length one of his bosom friendsthe Athenian Callippusseized the opportunity to mount to power by his murder； and caused him to be assassinated in his own house。 This event took place in 353； about three years after the expulsion of the Dionysian dynasty。 Callippus contrived to retain the sovereign power only a twelvemonth。 A period of anarchy followed； during which Dionysius made himself master of the city by treachery； about B。C。 346。 Dionysius； however； was not able to re…establish himself firmly in his former power。 Most of the other cities of Sicily had shaken off the yoke of Syracuse； and were governed by petty despots。 Meantime the Carthaginians prepared to take advantage of the distracted condition of Sicily。 In the extremity of their sufferings； several of the Syracusan exiles appealed for aid to Corinth； their mother…city。 The application was granted； and Timoleon was appointed to command an expedition destined for the relief of Syracuse。
Timoleon was distinguished for gentleness as well as for courage； but towards traitors and despots his hatred was intense。 He had once saved the life of his elder brother Timophanes in battle at the imminent peril of his own； but when Timophanes； availing himself of his situation as commander of the garrison in the Acrocorinthus； endeavoured to enslave his country； Timoleon did not hesitate to consent to his death。 Twice before had Timoleon pleaded with his brother； beseeching him not to destroy the liberties of his country； but when Timophanes turned a deaf ear to those appeals； Timoleon connived at the action of his friends； who put him to death； whilst he himself； bathed in a flood of tears； stood a little way aloof。 The great body of the citizens regarded the conduct of Timoleon with love and admiration。 In the mind of Timoleon； however； their approving verdict was far more than outweighed by the reproaches and execrations of his mother。 For many years nothing could prevail upon him to return to public life。 He buried； himself in the country far from the haunts of men； till a chance voice in the Corinthian assembly nominated him as the leader of the expedition against Dionysius。
Roused by the nature of the cause； and the exhortations of his friends； Timoleon accepted the post thus offered to him。 His success exceeded his hopes。 As soon as he appeared before Syracuse； Dionysius； who appears to have abandoned all hope of ultimate success； surrendered the citadel into his hands； on condition of being allowed to depart in safety to Corinth （B。C。 343）。 Dionysius passed the remainder of his life at Corinth； where he is said to have displayed some remnants of his former luxury by the fastidious taste which he showed in the choice of his viands； unguents； dress； and furniture； whilst his literary inclinations manifested themselves in teaching the public singers and actors； and in opening a school for boys。
Timoleon also expelled the other tyrants from the Sicilian cities； and gained a great victory over the Carthaginians at the river Crimesus （or Crimissus）。 He restored a republican constitution to Syracuse； and his first public act was to destroy the impregnable fortifications of the citadel of Ortygia； the stronghold of the elder and the younger Dionysius。 All the rewards which Timoleon received for his great services were a house in Syracuse； and some landed property in the neighbourhood of the city。 He now sent for his family from Corinth； and became a Syracusan citizen。 He continued； however； to retain； though in a private station； the greatest influence in the state。 During the latter part of his life； though he was totally deprived of sight； yet； when important affairs were discussed in the assembly； it was customary to send for Timoleon； who was drawn in a car into the middle of the theatre amid the shouts and affectionate greetings of the assembled citizens。 When the tumult of his reception had subsided he listened patiently to the debate。 The opinion which he pronounced was usually ratified by the vote of the assembly； and he then left the theatre amidst the same cheers which had greeted his arrival。 In this happy and honoured condition he breathed his last in B。C。 336； a few years after the battle of Crimesus。 He was splendidly interred at the public cost； whilst the tears of the whole Syracusan population followed him to the grave。
CHAPTER XIX。
PHILIP OF MACEDON； B。C。 359…336。
The internal dissensions of Greece produced their natural fruits； and we shall have now to relate the downfall of her independence and her subjugation by a foreign power。 This power was Macedonia； an obscure state to the north of Thessaly； hitherto overlooked and despised； and considered as altogether barbarous； and without the pale of Grecian civilization。 But though the Macedonians were not Greeks； their sovereigns claimed to be descended from an Hellenic race； namely； that of Temenus of Argos； and it is said that Alexander I。 proved his Argive descent previously to contending at the Olympic games。 Perdiccas is commonly regarded as the founder of the monarchy； of the history of which； however； little is known till the reign of Amyntas I。； his fifth successor； who was contemporary with the Pisistratidae at Athens。 Under Amyntas； who submitted to the satrap Megabyzus； Macedonia became subject to Persia； and remained so till after the battle of Plataea。 The reigns of the succeeding sovereigns present little that is remarkable； with the exception of that of Archelaus （B。C。 413）。 This monarch transferred his residence from AEgae to Pella； which thus became the capital。 He entertained many literary men at his court； such as Euripides； who ended his days at Pella。 Archelaus was assassinated in B。C。 399； and the crown devolved upon Amyntas II。； a representative of the ancient line。 Amyntas left three sons； the youngest being the celebrated Philip； of whom we have now to speak。
It has been already mentioned that the youthful Philip was one of the hostages delivered to the Thebans as security for the peace effected by Pelopidas。 His residence at Thebes gave him some tincture of Grecian philosophy and literature； but the most important lesson which he learned at that city was the art of war； with all the improved tactics introduced by Epaminondas。 Philip succeeded to the throne at the age of 23 （B。C。 359）； and displayed at the beginning of his reign his extraordinary energy and abilities。 After defeating the Illyrians he established a standing army； in which discipline was preserved by the severest punishments。 He introduced the far…famed Macedonian phalanx； which was 16 men deep； armed with long projecting spears。
Philip's views were first turned towards the eastern frontiers of his dominions； where his interests clashed with those of the Athenians。 A few years before the Athenians had made various unavailing attempts to obtain possession of Amphipolis； once the jewel of their empire； but which they had never recovered since its capture by Brasidas in the eighth year of the Peloponnesian war。 Its situation at the mouth of the Strymon rendered it also valuable to Macedonia； not only as a commercial port； but as opening a passage into Thrace。 The Olynthians were likewise anxious to enrol Amphipolis as a member of their confederacy； and accordingly proposed to the Athenians to form an alliance for the purpose of defending Amphipolis against their mutual enemy。 An alliance between these two powerful states would have proved an insurmountable obstacle to Philip's views： and it was therefore absolutely necessary to prevent this coalition。 Here we have the first instance of Philip's skill and duplicity in negotiation。 By secretly promising the Athenians that he would put Amphipolis into their hands if they would give him possession of Pydna； he induced them to reject the overtures of the Olynthians； and by ceding to the latter the town of Anthemus； he bought off their opposition。 He now laid siege to Amphipolis； which； being thus left unaided； fell into his hands （B。C。 358）。 He then forthwith marched against Pydna； which surrendered to him； but on the ground that it was not the Athenians who had put him in possession of this town； he refused to give up Amphipolis to them。
Philip had now just reason to dread the enmity of the Athenians； and accordingly it was his policy to court the favour of the Olynthians； and to prevent them from renewing their negotiations with the Athenians。 In order to separate them more effectually； he assisted the Olynthians in recovering Potidaea； which had formerly belonged to their confederacy； but was now in the hands of the Athenians。 On the capture of the town he handed it over to the Olynthians。 Plutarch relates that the capture of Potidaea was accompanied with three other fortunate events in the life of Philip； namely； the prize gained by his chariot at the Olympic games； a victory of his general Parmenio over the Illyrians； and the birth of his son Alexander。 These events happened in B。C。 356。
Philip now crossed the Strymon； on the left bank of which lay Pangaeus； a range of mountains abounding in gold…mines。 He conquered the district； and founded there a new town called Philippi； on the site of the ancient Thracian town of Crenides。 By improved methods of working the mines he made them yield an annual revenue of 1000 talents； nearly 250；000l。
Meanwhile Athens was engaged in a war with her allies； which has been called the SOCIAL WAR； and which was； perhaps； the reason why she was obliged to look quietly on whilst Philip was thus aggrandizing himself at her expense。 This war broke out in B。C。 357。 The chief causes of it seem to have been the contributions levied upon the allies by the Athenia