uch the same。 The Stoics aspired to the repression of all emotion； and the Epicureans to freedom from all disturbance； yet in the upshot the one has become a synonym of stubborn endurance； the other for unbridled licence。 With Epicureanism we have nothing to do now； but it will be worth while to sketch the history and tenets of the Stoic sect。 Zeno； the founder of Stoicism； was born in Cyprus at some date unknown； but his life may be said roughly to be between the years 350 and 250 B。C。 Cyprus has been from time immemorial a meeting…place of the East and West； and although we cannot grant any importance to a possible strain of Phoenician blood in him （for the Phoenicians were no philosophers）； yet it is quite likely that through Asia Minor he may have come in touch with the Far East。 He studied under the cynic Crates； but he did not neglect other philosophical systems。 After many years' study he opened his own school in a colonnade in Athens called the Painted Porch； or Stoa； which gave the Stoics their name。 Next to Zeno； the School of the Porch owes most to Chrysippus （280207 b。c。）； who organised Stoicism into a system。 Of him it was said； 'But for Chrysippus； there had been no Porch。'
The Stoics regarded speculation as a means to an end and that end was； as Zeno put it； to live consistently omologonuenws zhn or as it was later explained； to live in conformity with nature。 This conforming of the life to nature oralogoumenwz th fusei zhn。 was the Stoic idea of Virtue。
This dictum might easily be taken to mean that virtue consists in yielding to each natural impulse； but that was very far from the Stoic meaning。 In order to live in accord with nature； it is necessary to know what nature is； and to this end a threefold division of philosophy is madeinto Physics； dealing with the universe and its laws； the problems of divine government and teleology； Logic； which trains the mind to discern true from false； and Ethics； which applies the knowledge thus gained and tested to practical life。 The Stoic system of physics was materialism with an infusion of pantheism。 In contradiction to Plato's view that the Ideas； or Prototypes； of phenomena alone really exist； the Stoics held that material objects alone existed； but immanent in the material universe was a spiritual force which acted through them； manifesting itself under many forms； as fire； aether； spirit； soul； reason； the ruling principle。
The universe； then； is God； of whom the popular gods are manifestations； while legends and myths are allegorical。 The soul of man is thus an emanation from the godhead； into whom it will eventually be re…absorbed。 The divine ruling principle makes all things work together for good； but for the good of the whole。 The highest good of man is consciously to work with God for the common good； and this is the sense in which the Stoic tried to live in accord with nature。 In the individual it is virtue alone which enables him to do this； as Providence rules the universe； so virtue in the soul must rule man。
In Logic； the Stoic system is noteworthy for their theory as to the test of truth； the Criterion。 They compared the new…born soul to a sheet of paper ready for writing。 Upon this the senses write their impressions； fantasias and by experience of a number of these the soul unconsciously conceives general notions koinai eunoiai or anticipations。 prolhyeis When the impression was such as to be irresistible it was called （katalnptikh fantasia） one that holds fast； or as they explained it； one proceeding from truth。 Ideas and inferences artificially produced by deduction or the like were tested by this 'holding perception。' Of the Ethical application I have already spoken。 The highest good was the virtuous life。 Virtue alone is happiness； and vice is unhappiness。 Carrying this theory to its extreme； the Stoic said that there could be no gradations between virtue and vice； though of course each has its special manifestations。 Moreover； nothing is good but virtue； and nothing but vice is bad。 Those outside things which are commonly called good or bad； such as health and sickness； wealth and poverty； pleasure and pain； are to him indifferent adiofora。 All these things are merely the sphere in which virtue may act。 The ideal Wise Man is sufficient unto himself in all things； autarkhs and knowing these truths； he will be happy even when stretched upon the rack。 It is probable that no Stoic claimed for himself that he was this Wise Man； but that each strove after it as an ideal much as the Christian strives after a likeness to Christ。 The exaggeration in this statement was； however； so obvious； that the later Stoics were driven to make a further subdivision of things indifferent into what is preferable （prohgmena） and what is undesirable。 They also held that for him who had not attained to the perfect wisdom； certain actions were proper。 （kaqhkonta） These were neither virtuous nor vicious； but； like the indifferent things； held a middle place。 Two points in the Stoic system deserve special mention。 One is a careful distinction between things which are in our power and things which are not。 Desire and dislike； opinion and affection； are within the power of the will； whereas health； wealth； honour； and other such are general1y not so。 The Stoic was called upon to control his desires and affections； and to guide his opinion； to bring his whole being under the sway of the will or leading principle； just as the universe is guided and governed by divine Providence。 This is a special application of the favourite Greek virtue of moderation； （swfrosuum） and has also its parallel in Christian ethics。 The second point is a strong insistence on the unity of the universe； and on man's duty as part of a great whole。 Public spirit was the most splendid political virtue of the ancient world； and it is here made cosmopolitan。 It is again instructive to note that Christian sages insisted on the same thing。 Christians are taught that they are members of a worldwide brotherhood； where is neither Greek nor Hebrew； bond nor free and that they live their lives as fellow…workers with God。
Such is the system which underlies the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius。 Some knowledge of it is necessary to the right understanding of the book； but for us the chief interest lies elsewhere。 We do not come to Marcus Aurelius for a treatise on Stoicism。 He is no head of a school to lay down a body of doctrine for students； he does not even contemplate that others should read what he writes。 His philosophy is not an eager intellectual inquiry； but more what we should call religious feeling。 The uncompromising stiffness of Zeno or Chrysippus is softened and transformed by passing through a nature reverent and tolerant； gentle and free from guile； the grim resignation which made life possible to the Stoic sage becomes in him almost a mood of aspiration。 His book records the innermost thoughts of his heart； set down to ease it； with such moral maxims and reflections as may help him to bear the burden of duty and the countless annoyances of a busy life。
It is instructive to compare the Meditations with another famous book； the Imitation of Christ。 There is the same ideal of self…control in both。 It should be a man's task； says the Imitation； 'to overcome himself； and every day to be stronger than himself。' 'In withstanding of the passions standeth very peace of heart。' 'Let us set the axe to the root； that we being purged of our passions may have a peaceable mind。' To this end there must be continual self…examination。 'If thou may not continually gather thyself together； namely sometimes do it； at least once a day； the morning or the evening。 In the morning purpose； in the evening discuss the manner； what thou hast been this day； in word； work； and thought。' But while the Roman's temper is a modest self…reliance； the Christian aims at a more passive mood； humbleness and meekness； and reliance on the presence and personal friendship of God。 The Roman scrutinises his faults with severity； but without the self…contempt which makes the Christian 'vile in his own sight。' The Christian； like the Roman； bids 'study to withdraw thine heart from the love of things visible'； but it is not the busy life of duty he has in mind so much as the contempt of all worldly things； and the 'cutting away of all lower delectations。' Both rate men's praise or blame at their real worthlessness； 'Let not thy peace；' says the Christian； 'be in the mouths of men。' But it is to God's censure the Christian appeals； the Roman to his own soul。 The petty annoyances of injustice or unkindness are looked on by each with the same magnanimity。 'Why doth a little thing said or done against thee make thee sorry？ It is no new thing； it is not the first； nor shall it be the last； if thou live long。 At best suffer patiently； if thou canst not suffer joyously。' The Christian should sorrow more for other men's malice than for our own wrongs； but the Roman is inclined to wash his hands of the offender。 'Study to be patient in suffering and bearing other men's defaults and all manner infirmities；' says the Christian； but the Roman would never have thought to add； 'If all men were perfect； what had we then to suffer of other men for God？' The virtue of suffering in itself is an idea which does not meet us in the Meditations。 Both alike realise that man is one of a great community。 'No man is sufficient to himself；' says the Christian； 'we must bear together； help together； comfort together。' But while he sees a chief importance in zeal； in exalted emotion that is； and avoidance of lukewarmness； the Roman thought mainly of the duty to be done as well as might be； and less of the feeling which should go with the doing of it。 To the saint as to the emperor； the world is a poor thing at best。 'Verily it is a misery to live upon the earth；' says the Christian； few and evil are the days of man's life； which passeth away suddenly as a shadow。
But there is one great difference between the two books we are considering。 The Imitation is addressed to others； the Meditations by the writer to himself。 We learn nothing from the Imitation of the author's own life； except in so far as he may be assumed to have practised his own preachi