the origins of contemporary france-2- 第2部分

that　buyers　of　it　throw　the　detestable　bread；　which　it　makes　in　the

face　of　the　sub…delegate。　　At　Chevreuse　the　barley　has　sprouted　and

smells　bad；　the　〃　poor　wretches；〃　says　an　employee；　〃must　be　hard

pressed　with　hunger　to　put　up　with　it。〃　At　Fontainebleau　〃the

barley；　half　eaten　away；　produces　more　bran　than　flour；　and　to　make

bread　of　it；　one　is　obliged　to　work　it　over　several　times。〃　This

bread；　such　as　it　is；　is　an　object　of　savage　greed；　〃it　has　come　to

this；　that　it　is　impossible　to　distribute　it　except　through

wickets。〃　And　those　who　thus　obtain　their　ration；　〃are　often

attacked　on　the　road　and　robbed　of　it　by　the　more　vigorous　of　the

famished　people。〃　At　Nangis　〃the　magistrates　prohibit　the　same

person　from　buying　more　than　two　bushels　in　the　same　market。〃　In

short；　provisions　are　so　scarce　that　there　is　a　difficulty　in

feeding　the　soldiers；　the　minister　dispatches　two　letters　one　after

another　to　order　the　cutting　down　of　250；000　bushels　of　rye　before

the　harvest＇6＇。　　Paris　thus；　in　a　perfect　state　of　tranquility；

appears　like　a　famished　city　put　on　rations　at　the　end　of　a　long

siege；　and　the　dearth　will　not　be　greater　nor　the　food　worse　in

December　1870；　than　in　July　1789。



〃The　nearer　the　14th　of　July　approached；〃　says　an　eyewitness；＇7＇

〃the　more　did　the　dearth　increase。〃　Every　baker's　shop　was

surrounded　by　a　crowd；　to　which　bread　was　distributed　with　the　most

grudging　economy。　　This　bread　was　generally　blackish；　earthy；　and

bitter；　producing　inflammation　of　the　throat　and　pain　in　the　bowels。

I　have　seen　flour　of　detestable　quality　at　the　military　school　and

at　other　depots。　　I　have　seen　portions　of　it　yellow　in　color；　with

an　offensive　smell；　some　forming　blocks　so　hard　that　they　had　to　be

broken　into　fragments　by　repeated　blows　of　a　hatchet。　　For　my　own

part；　wearied　with　the　difficulty　of　procuring　this　poor　bread；　and

disgusted　with　that　offered　to　me　at　the　tables　d'h？te；　I　avoided

this　kind　of　food　altogether。　　In　the　evening　I　went　to　the　Café　du

Caveau；　where；　fortunately；　they　were　kind　enough　to　reserve　for　me

two　of　those　rolls　which　are　called　flutes；　and　this　is　the　only

bread　I　have　eaten　for　a　week　at　a　time。〃



　But　this　resource　is　only　for　the　rich。　　As　for　the　people；　to　get

bread　fit　for　dogs；　they　must　stand　in　a　line　for　hours。　　And　here

they　fight　for　it；　〃they　snatch　food　from　one　another。〃　There　is　no

more　work　to　be　had；　〃the　work…rooms　are　deserted；〃　often；　after

waiting　a　whole　day；　the　workman　returns　home　empty…handed。　　When　he

does　bring　back　a　four…pound　loaf　it　costs　him　3　francs　12　sous；

that　is；　12　sous　for　the　bread；　and　3　francs　for　the　lost　day。　　In

this　long　line　of　unemployed；　excited　men；　swaying　to　and　fro　before

the　shop…door；　dark　thoughts　are　fermenting：　〃if　the　bakers　find　no

flour　to…night　to　bake　with；　we　shall　have　nothing　to　eat　to…

morrow。〃　An　appalling　idea；　　in　presence　of　which　the　whole　power

of　the　Government　is　not　too　strong；　for　to　keep　order　in　the　midst

of　famine　nothing　avails　but　the　sight　of　an　armed　force；　palpable

and　threatening。　　Under　Louis　XIV　and　Louis　XV　there　had　been　even

greater　hunger　and　misery；　but　the　outbreaks；　which　were　roughly　and

promptly　put　down；　were　only　partial　and　passing　disorders。　　Some

rioters　were　at　once　hung；　and　others　were　sent　to　the　galleys。　　The

peasant　or　the　workman；　convinced　of　his　impotence；　at　once　returned

to　his　stall　or　his　plow。　　When　a　wall　is　too　high　one　does　not　even

think　of　scaling　it。　　　But　now　the　wall　is　cracking　　all　its

custodians；　the　clergy；　the　nobles；　the　Third…Estate；　men　of

letters；　the　politicians；　and　even　the　Government　itself；　making　the

breach　wider。　　The　wretched；　for　the　first　time；　discover　an　issue：

they　dash　through　it；　at　first　in　driblets；　then　in　a　mass；　and

rebellion　becomes　as　universal　as　resignation　was　in　the　past。





II。



Expectations　the　second　cause。　　…　Separation　and　laxity　of　the

administrative　forces。　　…　Investigations　of　local　assemblies。　　…　The

people　become　aware　of　their　condition。　　…　Convocation　of　the

States…General。　　…　Hope　is　born。　　The　coincidence　of　early

Assemblies　with　early　difficulties。



It　is　just　through　this　breach　that　hope　steals　like　a　beam　of

light；　and　gradually　finds　its　way　down　to　the　depths　below。　　For

the　last　fifty　years　it　has　been　rising；　and　its　rays；　which　first

illuminated　the　upper　class　in　their　splendid　apartments　in　the

first　story；　and　next　the　middle　class　in　their　entresol　and　on　the

ground　floor。　　They　have　now　for　two　years　penetrated　to　the　cellars

where　the　people　toil；　and　even　to　the　deep　sinks　and　obscure

corners　where　rogues　and　vagabonds　and　malefactors；　a　foul　and

swarming　herd；　crowd　and　hide　themselves　from　the　persecution　of　the

law。　　　To　the　first　two　provincial　assemblies　instituted　by　Necker

in　1778　and　1779；　Loménie　de　Brienne　has　in　1787　just　added　nineteen

others；　under　each　of　these　are　assemblies　of　the　arrondissement；

under　each　assembly　of　the　arrondissement　are　parish　assemblies＇8＇。

Thus　the　whole　machinery　of　administration　has　been　changed。　　It　is

the　new　assemblies　which　assess　the　taxes　and　superintend　their

collection；　which　determine　upon　and　direct　all　public　works；　and

which　form　the　court　of　final　appeal　in　regard　to　matters　in

dispute。　　The　intendant；　the　sub…delegate；　the　elected

representative＇9＇；　thus　lose　three…quarters　of　their　authority。

Conflicts　arise；　consequently；　between　rival　powers　whose　frontiers

are　not　clearly　defined；　command　shifts　about；　and　obedience　is

diminished。　　The　subject　no　longer　feels　on　his　shoulders　the

commanding　weight　of　the　one　hand　which；　without　possibility　of

interference　or　resistance；　held　him　in；　urged　him　forward；　and　made

him　move　on。　　Meanwhile；　in　each　assembly　of　the　parish

arrondissement；　and　even　of　the　province；　plebeians；　〃husband…

men；〃＇10＇　and　often　common　farmers；　sit　by　the　side　of　lords　and

prelates。　　They　listen　to　and　remember　the　vast　figure　of　the　taxes

which　are　paid　exclusively；　or　almost　exclusively；　by　them　　the

taille　and　its　accessories；　the　poll…tax　and　road　dues；　and

assuredly　on　their　return　home　they　talk　all　this　over　with　their

neighbor。　　These　figures　are　all　printed；　the　village　attorney

discusses　the　matter　with　his　clients；　the　artisans　and　rustics；　on

Sunday　as　they　leave　the　mass；　or　in　the　evening　in　the　large　public

room　of　the　tavern。　　These　little　gatherings；　moreover；　are

sanctioned；　encouraged　by　the　powers　above。　　In　the　earliest　days　of

1788　the　provincial　assemblies　order　a　board　of　inquiry　to　be　held

by　the　syndics　and　inhabitants　of　each　parish。　　Knowledge　is　wanted

in　detail　of　their　grievances。　　What　part　of　the　revenue　is

chargeable　to　each　impost？　What　must　the　cultivator　pay　and　how　much

does　he　suffer？　How　many　privileged　persons　there　are　in　the　parish；

what　is　the　amount　of　their　fortune；　are　they　residents；　and　what

their　exemptions　amount　to？　In　replying；　the　attorney　who　holds　the

pen；　names　and　points　out　with　his　finger　each　privileged

individual；　criticizes　his　way　of　living；　and　estimates　his　fortune；

calculates　the　injury　done　to　the　village　by　his　immunities；

inveighs　against　the　taxes　and　the　tax…collectors。　　On　leaving　these

assemblies　the　villager　broods　over　what　he　has　just　heard。　　He　sees

his　grievances　no　longer　singly　as　before；　but　in　mass；　and　coupled

with　the　enormity　of　evils　under　which　his　fellows　suffer。　　Besides

this；　they　begin　to　disentangle　the　causes　of　their　misery：　the　King

is　good　　why　then　do　his　collectors　take　so　much　of　our　money？

This　or　that　canon　or　nobleman　is　not　unkind　　why　then　do　they

make　us　pay　in　their　place？　　Imagine　that　a　sudden　gleam　of　reason

should　allow　a　beast　of　burden　to　comprehend　the　contrast　between

the　species　of　horse　and　mankind。　　Imagine；　if　you　can；　what　its

first　ideas　would　be　in　relation　to　the　coachmen　and　drivers　who

bridle　and　whip　it　and　again　in　relation　to　the　good…natured

travelers　and　sensitive　ladies　who　pity　it；　but　who　to　the　weight　of

the　vehicle　add　their　own　and　that　of　their　luggage。



Likewise；　in　the　mind　of　the　peasant；　athwart　his　perplexed

brooding；　a　new　idea；　slowly；　little　by　little；　is　unfolded：　　that

of　an　oppressed　multitude　of　which　he　makes　one；　a　vast　herd

scattered　far　beyond　the　visible　horizon；　everywhere　ill　used；

starved；　and　fleeced。　　Towards　the　end　of　1788　we　begin　to　detect　in

the　correspondence　of　the　intendants　and　military　commandants　the

dull　universal　muttering　of　coming　wrath。　　Men's　characters　seem　to

change；　they　become　suspicious　and　restive。　　　And　just　at　this

moment；　the　Government；　dropping　the　reins；　calls　upon　them　to

direct　themselves。＇11＇。　　In　the　month　of　November　1787；　the　King

declared　that　he　would　convoke　the　States…General。　　On　the　5th　of

July　1788；　he　calls　for　memoranda　（des　mémoires）　on　this　subject

from　every　competent　person　and　body。　　On　the　8th　of　August　he　fixes

the　date　of　the　session。　　On　the　5th　of　October　he　convokes　the

notables；　in　order　to　consider　the　subject　with　them。　　On　the　27th

of　December　he　grants　a　double　representation　to　the　Third…Estate；

because　〃its　cause　is　allied　with　generous　sentiments；　and　it　will

always　obtain　the　support　of　public　opinion。〃　The　same　day　he

introduces　into　the　electoral　assemblies　of　the　clergy　a　majority　of

curés＇12＇；　〃because　good　and　useful　pastors　are　daily　and　closely

associated　with　the　indigence　and　relief　of　the　people；〃　from　which

it　follows　〃that　they　are　much　more　familiar　with　their　sufferings〃

and　necessities。　　On　the　24th　January　1789；　he　prescribes　the

procedure　and　method　of　the　meetings。　　After　the　7th　of　February

writs　of　summons　are　sent　out　one　after　the　other。　　Eight　days

after；　each　parish　assembly　begins　to　draw　up　its　memorial　of

grievances；　and　becomes　excited　over　the　detailed　enumeration　of　all

the　miseries　which　it　sets　down　in　writing。