world； and do infinitely exceed the small number was at the beginning。
Nay； the extent of ground is of so little value without labour that
I have heard it affirmed that in Spain itself a man may be permitted
to plough； sow； and reap； without being disturbed； upon land he has no
other title to； but only his making use of it。 But； on the contrary；
the inhabitants think themselves beholden to him who； by his
industry on neglected； and consequently waste land； has increased
the stock of corn； which they wanted。 But be this as it will； which
I lay no stress on； this I dare boldly affirm； that the same rule of
propriety… viz。； that every man should have as much as he could make
use of； would hold still in the world； without straitening anybody；
since there is land enough in the world to suffice double the
inhabitants； had not the invention of money； and the tacit agreement
of men to put a value on it； introduced （by consent） larger
possessions and a right to them； which； how it has done； I shall by
and by show more at large。
37。 This is certain； that in the beginning； before the desire of
having more than men needed had altered the intrinsic value of things；
which depends only on their usefulness to the life of man； or had
agreed that a little piece of yellow metal； which would keep without
wasting or decay； should be worth a great piece of flesh or a whole
heap of corn； though men had a right to appropriate by their labour；
each one to himself； as much of the things of Nature as he could
use； yet this could not be much； nor to the prejudice of others； where
the same plenty was still left； to those who would use the same
industry。
Before the appropriation of land； he who gathered as much of the
wild fruit； killed； caught； or tamed as many of the beasts as he
could… he that so employed his pains about any of the spontaneous
products of Nature as any way to alter them from the state Nature
put them in； by placing any of his labour on them； did thereby acquire
a propriety in them； but if they perished in his possession without
their due use… if the fruits rotted or the venison putrefied before he
could spend it； he offended against the common law of Nature； and
was liable to be punished： he invaded his neighbour's share； for he
had no right farther than his use called for any of them； and they
might serve to afford him conveniencies of life。
38。 The same measures governed the possession of land； too。
Whatsoever he tilled and reaped； laid up and made use of before it
spoiled； that was his peculiar right； whatsoever he enclosed； and
could feed and make use of； the cattle and product was also his。 But
if either the grass of his enclosure rotted on the ground； or the
fruit of his planting perished without gathering and laying up； this
part of the earth； notwithstanding his enclosure； was still to be
looked on as waste； and might be the possession of any other。 Thus； at
the beginning； Cain might take as much ground as he could till and
make it his own land； and yet leave enough to Abel's sheep to feed on：
a few acres would serve for both their possessions。 But as families
increased and industry enlarged their stocks； their possessions
enlarged with the need of them； but yet it was commonly without any
fixed property in the ground they made use of till they
incorporated； settled themselves together； and built cities； and then；
by consent； they came in time to set out the bounds of their
distinct territories and agree on limits between them and their
neighbours； and by laws within themselves settled the properties of
those of the same society。 For we see that in that part of the world
which was first inhabited； and therefore like to be best peopled； even
as low down as Abraham's time； they wandered with their flocks and
their herds； which was their substance； freely up and down… and this
Abraham did in a country where he was a stranger； whence it is plain
that； at least； a great part of the land lay in common； that the
inhabitants valued it not； nor claimed property in any more than
they made use of； but when there was not room enough in the same place
for their herds to feed together； they； by consent； as Abraham and Lot
did （Gen。 xiii。 5）； separated and enlarged their pasture where it best
liked them。 And for the same reason； Esau went from his father and his
brother； and planted in Mount Seir （Gen。 36。 6）。
39。 And thus； without supposing any private dominion and property in
Adam over all the world； exclusive of all other men； which can no
way be proved； nor any one's property be made out from it； but
supposing the world； given as it was to the children of men in common；
we see how labour could make men distinct titles to several parcels of
it for their private uses； wherein there could be no doubt of right；
no room for quarrel。
40。 Nor is it so strange as； perhaps； before consideration； it may
appear； that the property of labour should be able to overbalance
the community of land； for it is labour indeed that puts the
difference of value on everything； and let any one consider what the
difference is between an acre of land planted with tobacco or sugar；
sown with wheat or barley； and an acre of the same land lying in
common without any husbandry upon it； and he will find that the
improvement of labour makes the far greater part of the value。 I think
it will be but a very modest computation to say； that of the
products of the earth useful to the life of man； nine…tenths are the
effects of labour。 Nay； if we will rightly estimate things as they
come to our use； and cast up the several expenses about them… what
in them is purely owing to Nature and what to labour… we shall find
that in most of them ninety…nine hundredths are wholly to be put on
the account of labour。
41。 There cannot be a clearer demonstration of anything than several
nations of the Americans are of this； who are rich in land and poor in
all the comforts of life； whom Nature； having furnished as liberally
as any other people with the materials of plenty… i。e。； a fruitful
soil； apt to produce in abundance what might serve for food；
raiment； and delight； yet； for want of improving it by labour； have
not one hundredth part of the conveniencies we enjoy； and a king of
a large and fruitful territory there feeds； lodges； and is clad
worse than a day labourer in England。
42。 To make this a little clearer； let us but trace some of the
ordinary provisions of life； through their several progresses；
before they come to our use； and see how much they receive of their
value from human industry。 Bread； wine； and cloth are things of
daily use and great plenty； yet notwithstanding acorns； water； and
leaves； or skins must be our bread； drink and clothing； did not labour
furnish us with these more useful commodities。 For whatever bread is
more worth than acorns； wine than water； and cloth or silk than
leaves； skins or moss； that is wholly owing to labour and industry。
The one of these being the food and raiment which unassisted Nature
furnishes us with； the other provisions which our industry and pains
prepare for us； which how much they exceed the other in value； when
any one hath computed； he will then see how much labour makes the
far greatest part of the value of things we enjoy in this world； and
the ground which produces the materials is scarce to be reckoned in as
any； or at most； but a very small part of it； so little； that even
amongst us； land that is left wholly to nature； that hath no
improvement of pasturage； tillage； or planting； is called； as indeed
it is； waste； and we shall find the benefit of it amount to little
more than nothing。
43。 An acre of land that bears here twenty bushels of wheat； and
another in America； which； with the same husbandry； would do the like；
are； without doubt； of the same natural； intrinsic value。 But yet
the benefit mankind receives from one in a year is worth five
pounds； and the other possibly not worth a penny； if all the profit an
Indian received from it were to be valued and sold here； at least I
may truly say； not one thousandth。 It is labour； then； which puts
the greatest part of value upon land； without which it would
scarcely be worth anything； it is to that we owe the greatest part
of all its useful products； for all that the straw； bran； bread； of
that acre of wheat； is more worth than the product of an acre of as
good land which lies waste is all the effect of labour。 For it is
not barely the ploughman's pains； the reaper's and thresher's toil；
and the baker's sweat； is to be counted into the bread we eat； the
labour of those who broke the oxen； who digged and wrought the iron
and stones； who felled and framed the timber employed about the
plough； mill； oven； or any other utensils； which are a vast number；
requisite to this corn； from its sowing to its being made bread；
must all be charged on the account of labour； and received as an
effect of that； Nature and the earth furnished only the almost
worthless materials as in themselves。 It would be a strange
catalogue of things that industry provided and made use of about every
loaf of bread before it came to our use if we could trace them；
iron； wood； leather； bark； timber； stone； bricks； coals； lime；
cloth； dyeing…drugs； pitch； tar； masts； ropes； and all the materials
made use of in the ship that brought any of the commodities made use
of by any of the workmen； to any part of the work； all which it
would be almost impossible； at least too long； to reckon up。
44。 From all which it is evident； that though the things of Nature
are given in common； man （by being master of himself； and proprietor
of his own person； and the actions or labour of it） had still in
himself the great foundation of property； and that which made up the
great part of what he applied to the support or comfort of his
being； when invention and arts had improved the conveniences of
life； was perfectly his own； and did not belong in common to others。
45。 Thus labour； in the beginning； gave a right of property；
wherever a