this kind； without some authority to compel their inhabitants to
act according to some certain plan or system； no voluntary league
of mutual defence could either have afforded them any permanent
security； or have enabled them to give the king any considerable
support。 By granting them the farm of their town in fee； he took
away from those whom he wished to have for his friends； and； if
one may say so； for his allies； all ground of jealousy and
suspicion that he was ever afterwards to oppress them； either by
raising the farm rent of their town or by granting it to some
other farmer。
The princes who lived upon the worst terms with their barons
seem accordingly to have been the most liberal in grants of this
kind to their burghs。 King John of England； for example； appears
to have been a most munificent benefactor to his towns。 Philip
the First of France lost all authority over his barons。 Towards
the end of his reign； his son Lewis； known afterwards by the name
of Lewis the Fat； consulted； according to Father Daniel； with the
bishops of the royal demesnes concerning the most proper means of
restraining the violence of the great lords。 Their advice
consisted of two different proposals。 One was to erect a new
order of jurisdiction； by establishing magistrates and a town
council in every considerable town of his demesnes。 The other was
to form a new militia； by making the inhabitants of those towns；
under the command of their own magistrates； march out upon proper
occasions to the assistance of the king。 It is from this period；
according to the French antiquarians； that we are to date the
institution of the magistrates and councils of cities in France。
It was during the unprosperous reigns of the princes of the house
of Suabia that the greater part of the free towns of Germany
received the first grants of their privileges； and that the
famous Hanseatic league first became formidable。
The militia of the cities seems； in those times； not to have
been inferior to that of the country； and as they could be more
readily assembled upon any sudden occasion； they frequently had
the advantage in their disputes with the neighbouring lords。 In
countries； such as Italy and Switzerland； in which； on account
either of their distance from the principal seat of government；
of the natural strength of the country itself； or of some other
reason； the sovereign came to lose the whole of his authority；
the cities generally became independent republics； and conquered
all the nobility in their neighbourhood； obliging them to pull
down their castles in the country and to live； like other
peaceable inhabitants； in the city。 This is the short history of
the republic of Berne as well as of several other cities in
Switzerland。 If you except Venice； for of that city the history
is somewhat different； it is the history of all the considerable
Italian republics； of which so great a number arose and perished
between the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the sixteenth
century。
In countries such as France or England； where the authority
of the sovereign； though frequently very low； never was destroyed
altogether； the cities had no opportunity of becoming entirely
independent。 They became； however； so considerable that the
sovereign could impose no tax upon them； besides the stated
farm…rent of the town； without their own consent。 They were；
therefore； called upon to send deputies to the general assembly
of the states of the kingdom； where they might join with the
clergy and the barons in granting； upon urgent occasions； some
extraordinary aid to the king。 Being generally； too； more
favourable to his power； their deputies seem； sometimes； to have
been employed by him as a counterbalance in those assemblies to
the authority of the great lords。 Hence the origin of the
representation of burghs in the states…general of all the great
monarchies in Europe。
Order and good government； and along with them the liberty
and security of individuals； were； in this manner； established in
cities at a time when the occupiers of land in the country were
exposed to every sort of violence。 But men in this defenceless
state naturally content themselves with their necessary
subsistence； because to acquire more might only tempt the
injustice of their oppressors。 On the contrary； when they are
secure of enjoying the fruits of their industry； they naturally
exert it to better their condition； and to acquire not only the
necessaries； but the conveniences and elegancies of life。 That
industry； therefore； which aims at something more than necessary
subsistence； was established in cities long before it was
commonly practised by the occupiers of land in the country。 If in
the hands of a poor cultivator； oppressed with the servitude of
villanage； some little stock should accumulate； he would
naturally conceal it with great care from his master； to whom it
would otherwise have belonged； and take the first opportunity of
running away to a town。 The law was at that time so indulgent to
the inhabitants of towns； and so desirous of diminishing the
authority of the lords over those of the country； that if he
could conceal himself there from the pursuit of his lord for a
year； he was free for ever。 Whatever stock； therefore；
accumulated in the hands of the industrious part of the
inhabitants of the country naturally took refuge in cities as the
only sanctuaries in which it could be secure to the person that
acquired it。
The inhabitants of a city； it is true； must always
ultimately derive their subsistence； and the whole materials and
means of their industry； from the country。 But those of a city；
situated near either the sea coast or the banks of a navigable
river； are not necessarily confined to derive them from the
country in their neighbourhood。 They have a much wider range； and
may draw them from the most remote corners of the world； either
in exchange for the manufactured produce of their own industry；
or by performing the office of carriers between distant countries
and exchanging the produce of one for that of another。 A city
might in this manner grow up to great wealth and splendour； while
not only the country in its neighbourhood； but all those to which
it traded； were in poverty and wretchedness。 Each of those
countries； perhaps； taken singly； could afford it but a small
part either of its subsistence or of its employment； but all of
them taken together could afford it both a great subsistence and
a great employment。 There were； however； within the narrow circle
of the commerce of those times； some countries that were opulent
and industrious。 Such was the Greek empire as long as it
subsisted； and that of the Saracens during the reigns of the
Abassides。 Such too was Egypt till it was conquered by the Turks；
some part of the coast of Barbary； and all those provinces of
Spain which were under the government of the Moors。
The cities of Italy seem to have been the first in Europe
which were raised by commerce to any considerable degree of
opulence。 Italy lay in the centre of what was at that time the
improved and civilised part of the world。 The Crusades too；
though by the great waste of stock and destruction of inhabitants
which they occasioned they must necessarily have retarded the
progress of the greater part of Europe； were extremely favourable
to that of some Italian cities。 The great armies which marched
from all parts to the conquest of the Holy Land gave
extraordinary encouragement to the shipping of Venice； Genoa； and
Pisa； sometimes in transporting them thither； and always in
supplying them with provisions。 They were the commissaries； if
one may say so； of those armies； and the most destructive frenzy
that ever befell the European nations was a source of opulence to
those republics。
The inhabitants of trading cities； by importing the improved
manufactures and expensive luxuries of richer countries； afforded
some food to the vanity of the great proprietors； who eagerly
purchased them with great quantities of the rude produce of their
own lands。 The commerce of a great part of Europe in those times；
accordingly； consisted chiefly in the exchange of their own rude
for the； manufactured produce of more civilised nations。 Thus the
wool of England used to be exchanged for the wines of France and
the fine cloths of Flanders； in the same manner as the corn in
Poland is at this day exchanged for the wines and brandies of
France and for the silks and velvets of France and Italy。
A taste for the finer and more improved manufactures was in
this manner introduced by foreign commerce into countries where
no such works were carried on。 But when this taste became so
general as to occasion a considerable demand； the merchants； in
order to save the expense of carriage； naturally endeavoured to
establish some manufactures of the same kind in their own
country。 Hence the origin of the first manufactures for distant
sale that seem to have been established in the western provinces
of Europe after the fall of the Roman empire。 No large country；
it must be observed； ever did or could subsist without some sort
of manufactures being carried on in it； and when it is said of
any such country that it has no manufactures； it must always be
understood of the finer and more improved or of such as are fit
for distant sale。 In every large country both the clothing and
household furniture of the far greater part of the people are the
produce of their own industry。 This is even more universally the
case in those poor countries which are commonly said to have no
manufactures than in those rich ones that are said to abound in
them。 In the latter； you will generally find； both in the clothes
and household furniture of the lowest rank of people； a much
greater proportion of foreign productions than in the former。
Those manufactures which are fit for distant sale seem to
have been introduced into different countries in two different
ways。
Sometimes they have been introdu