his praise of the ant with this cautious observation：
〃The competence of the ant is not like that of man。 It is devoted to the
welfare of the species rather than to that of the individual； which is； as
it were； sacrificed or specialized for the benefit of the community。〃
The obvious implication； that any social state； in which the
improvement of the individual is sacrificed to the common welfare； leaves
much to be desired； is probably correct； from the actual human
standpoint。 For man is yet imperfectly evolved； and human society has much
to gain from his further individualization。 But in regard to social insects
the implied criticism is open to question。 〃The improvement of the
individual；〃 says Herbert Spencer； 〃consists in the better fitting of him
for social cooperation； and this； being conducive to social prosperity； is
conducive to the maintenance of the race。〃 In other words； the value of the
individual can be only in relation to the society； and this granted；
whether the sacrifice of the individual for the sake of that society be
good or evil must depend upon what the society might gain or lose through a
further individualization of its members。。。 But as we shall presently see；
the conditions of ant…society that most deserve our attention are the
ethical conditions； and these are beyond human criticism； since they
realize that ideal of moral evolution described by Mr。 Spencer as 〃a state
in which egoism and altruism are so conciliated that the one merges into
the other。〃 That is to say； a state in which the only possible pleasure is
the pleasure of unselfish action。 Or； again to quote Mr。 Spencer； the
activities of the insect…society are 〃activities which postpone individual
well…being so completely to the well…being of the community that individual
life appears to be attended to only just so far as is necessary to make
possible due attention to social life；。。。 the individual taking only just
such food and just such rest as are needful to maintain its vigor。〃
III
I hope my reader is aware that ants practise horticulture and agriculture；
that they are skillful in the cultivation of mushrooms； that they have
domesticated （according to present knowledge） five hundred and eighty…four
different kinds of animals； that they make tunnels through solid rock； that
they know how to provide against atmospheric changes which might endanger
the health of their children； and that； for insects； their longevity is
exceptional； members of the more highly evolved species living for a
considerable number of years。
But it is not especially of these matters that I wish to speak。 What I
want to talk about is the awful propriety； the terrible morality； of the
ant ＇1＇。 Our most appalling ideals of conduct fall short of the ethics of
the ant； as progress is reckoned in time； by nothing less than millions
of years！。。。 When I say 〃the ant；〃 I mean the highest type of ant； not；
of course； the entire ant…family。 About two thousand species of ants are
already known； and these exhibit； in their social organizations； widely
varying degrees of evolution。 Certain social phenomena of the greatest
biological importance； and of no less importance in their strange relation
to the subject of ethics； can be studied to advantage only in the existence
of the most highly evolved societies of ants。
After all that has been written of late years about the probable value of
relative experience in the long life of the ant； I suppose that few persons
would venture to deny individual character to the ant。 The intelligence of
the little creature in meeting and overcoming difficulties of a totally new
kind； and in adapting itself to conditions entirely foreign to its
experience； proves a considerable power of independent thinking。 But this
at least is certain： that the ant has no individuality capable of being
exercised in a purely selfish direction； I am using the word 〃selfish〃 in
its ordinary acceptation。 A greedy ant； a sensual ant； an ant capable of
any one of the seven deadly sins； or even of a small venial sin； is
unimaginable。 Equally unimaginable； of course； a romantic ant； an
ideological ant； a poetical ant； or an ant inclined to metaphysical
speculations。 No human mind could attain to the absolute matter…of…fact
quality of the ant…mind； no human being； as now constituted； could
cultivate a mental habit so impeccably practical as that of the ant。 But
this superlatively practical mind is incapable of moral error。 It would be
difficult； perhaps； to prove that the ant has no religious ideas。 But it is
certain that such ideas could not be of any use to it。 The being incapable
of moral weakness is beyond the need of 〃spiritual guidance。〃
Only in a vague way can we conceive the character of ant…society； and the
nature of ant…morality； and to do even this we must try to imagine some yet
impossible state of human society and human morals。 Let us； then； imagine a
world full of people incessantly and furiously working； all of whom seem
to be women。 No one of these women could be persuaded or deluded into
taking a single atom of food more than is needful to maintain her strength；
and no one of them ever sleeps a second longer than is necessary to keep
her nervous system in good working…order。 And all of them are so peculiarly
constituted that the least unnecessary indulgence would result in some
derangement of function。
The work daily performed by these female laborers comprises road…making；
bridge…building； timber…cutting； architectural construction of numberless
kinds； horticulture and agriculture； the feeding and sheltering of a
hundred varieties of domestic animals； the manufacture of sundry chemical
products； the storage and conservation of countless food…stuffs； and the
care of the children of the race。 All this labor is done for the
commonwealth no citizen of which is capable even of thinking about
〃property；〃 except as a res publica； and the sole object of the
commonwealth is the nurture and training of its young； nearly all of whom
are girls。 The period of infancy is long： the children remain for a great
while； not only helpless； but shapeless； and withal so delicate that they
must be very carefully guarded against the least change of temperature。
Fortunately their nurses understand the laws of health： each thoroughly
knows all that she ought to know in regard to ventilation； disinfection；
drainage； moisture； and the danger of germs； germs being as visible；
perhaps； to her myopic sight as they become to our own eyes under the
microscope。 Indeed； all matters of hygiene are so well comprehended that no
nurse ever makes a mistake about the sanitary conditions of her
neighborhood。
In spite of this perpetual labor no worker remains unkempt： each is
scrupulously neat； making her toilet many times a day。 But as every worker
is born with the most beautiful of combs and brushes attached to her
wrists； no time is wasted in the toilet…room。 Besides keeping themselves
strictly clean； the workers must also keep their houses and gardens in
faultless order； for the sake of the children。 Nothing less than an
earthquake； an eruption； an inundation； or a desperate war； is allowed to
interrupt the daily routine of dusting； sweeping； scrubbing； and
disinfecting。
IV
Now for stranger facts：
This world of incessant toil is a more than Vestal world。 It is true that
males can sometimes be perceived in it； but they appear only at particular
seasons； and they have nothing whatever to do with the workers or with the
work。 None of them would presume to address a worker； except； perhaps；
under extraordinary circumstances of common peril。 And no worker would
think of talking to a male； for males； in this queer world； are inferior
beings； equally incapable of fighting or working； and tolerated only as
necessary evils。 One special class of females； the Mothers…Elect of the
race； do condescend to consort with males； during a very brief period； at
particular seasons。 But the Mothers…Elect do not work； and they most accept
husbands。 A worker could not even dream of keeping company with a male；
not merely because such association would signify the most frivolous waste
of time； nor yet because the worker necessarily regards all males with
unspeakable contempt； but because the worker is incapable of wedlock。 Some
workers； indeed； are capable of parthenogenesis； and give birth to children
who never had fathers。 As a general rule； however； the worker is truly
feminine by her moral instincts only： she has all the tenderness； the
patience； and the foresight that we call 〃maternal；〃 but her sex has
disappeared； like the sex of the Dragon…Maiden in the Buddhist legend。
For defense against creatures of prey； or enemies of the state； the
workers are provided with weapons； and they are furthermore protected by a
large military force。 The warriors are so much bigger than the workers （in
some communities； at least） that it is difficult； at first sight； to
believe them of the same race。 Soldiers one hundred times larger than the
workers whom they guard are not uncommon。 But all these soldiers are
Amazons； or； more correctly speaking； semi…females。 They can work
sturdily； but being built for fighting and for heavy pulling chiefly； their
usefulness is restricted to those directions in which force； rather than
skill； is required。
＇Why females； rather than males； should have been evolutionally
specialized into soldiery and laborers may not be nearly so simple a
question as it appears。 I am very sure of not being able to answer it。 But
natural economy may have decided the matter。 In many forms of life； the
female greatly exceeds the male in bulk and in energy； perhaps； in this
case； the larger reserve of life…force possessed originally by the complete
female could be more rap