distributed among the people of France。 But that part of the
English capital only which was employed in producing the English
commodities with which those foreign goods were purchased would
be annually distributed among the people of England。 The greater
part of it would replace the capitals which had been employed in
Virginia； Indostan； and China； and which had given revenue and
maintenance to the of those distant countries。 If the capitals
were equal； or nearly equal； therefore this employment of the
French capital would augment much more the revenue of the people
of France than that of the English capital would the revenue of
the people of England。 France would in this case carry on a
direct foreign trade of consumption with England； whereas England
would carry on a round…about trade of the same kind with France。
The different effects of a capital employed in the direct and of
one employed in the round…about foreign trade of consumption have
already been fully explained。
There is not； probably； between any two countries a trade
which consists altogether in the exchange either of native
commodities on both sides； or of native commodities on one side
and of foreign goods on the other。 Almost all countries exchange
with one another partly native and partly foreign goods。 That
country； however； in whose cargoes there is the greatest
proportion of native； and the least of foreign goods； will always
be the principal gainer。
If it was not with tobacco and East India goods； but with
gold and silver； that England paid for the commodities annually
imported from France； the balance； in this case； would be
supposed uneven； commodities not being paid for with commodities；
but with gold and silver。 The trade； however； would； in this
case； as in the foregoing； give some revenue to the inhabitants
of both countries； but more to those of France than to those of
England。 It would give some revenue to those of England。 The
capital which had been employed in producing the English goods
that purchased this gold and silver； the capital which had been
distributed among； and given revenue to； certain inhabitants of
England； would thereby be replaced and enabled to continue that
employment。 The whole capital of England would no more be
diminished by this exportation of gold and silver than by the
exportation of an equal value of any other goods。 On the
contrary； it would in most cases be augmented。 No goods are sent
abroad but those for which the demand is supposed to be greater
abroad than at home； and of which the returns consequently； it is
expected； will be of more value at home than the commodities
exported。 If the tobacco which； in England； is worth only a
hundred thousand pounds； when sent to France will purchase wine
which is； in England； worth a hundred and ten thousand； this
exchange will equally augment the capital of England by ten
thousand pounds。 If a hundred thousand pounds of English gold； in
the same manner； purchase French wine which； in England； is worth
a hundred and ten thousand； this exchange will equally augment
the capital of England by ten thousand pounds。 As a merchant who
has a hundred and ten thousand pounds worth of wine in his cellar
is a richer man than he who has only a hundred thousand pounds
worth of tobacco in his warehouse； so is he likewise a richer man
than he who has only a hundred thousand pounds worth of gold in
his coffers。 He can put into motion a greater quantity of
industry； and give revenue； maintenance； and employment to a
greater number of people than either of the other two。 But the
capital of the country is equal to the capitals of all its
different inhabitants； and the quantity of industry which can be
annually maintained in it is equal to what all those different
capitals can maintain。 Both the capital of the country；
therefore； and the quantity of industry which can be annually
maintained in it； must generally be augmented by this exchange。
It would； indeed； be more advantageous for England that it could
purchase the wines of France with its own hardware and broadcloth
than with either the tobacco of Virginia or the gold and silver
of Brazil and Peru。 A direct foreign trade of consumption is
always more advantageous than a roundabout one。 But a round…about
foreign trade of consumption； which is carried on with gold and
silver； does not seem to be less advantageous than any other
equally round…about one。 Neither is a country which has no mines
more likely to be exhausted of gold and silver by this annual
exportation of those metals than one which does not grow tobacco
by the like annual exportation of that plant。 As a country which
has wherewithal to buy tobacco will never be long in want of it；
so neither will one be long in want of gold and silver which has
wherewithal to purchase those metals。
It is a losing trade； it is said； which a workman carries on
with the alehouse； and the trade which a manufacturing nation
would naturally carry on with a wine country may be considered as
a trade of the same nature。 I answer； that the trade with the
alehouse is not necessarily a losing trade。 In its own nature it
is just as advantageous as any other； though perhaps somewhat
more liable to be abused。 The employment of a brewer； and even
that of a retailer of fermented liquors； are as necessary
divisions of labour as any other。 It will generally be more
advantageous for a workman to buy of the brewer the quantity he
has occasion for than to brew it himself； and if he is a poor
workman； it will generally be more advantageous for him to buy it
by little and little of the retailer than a large quantity of the
brewer。 He may no doubt buy too much of either； as he may of any
other dealers in his neighbourhood； of the butcher； if he is a
glutton； or of the draper； if he affects to be a beau among his
companions。 It is advantageous to the great body of workmen；
notwithstanding； that all these trades should be free； though
this freedom may be abused in all of them； and is more likely to
be so； perhaps； in some than in others。 Though individuals；
besides； may sometimes ruin their fortunes by an excessive
consumption of fermented liquors； there seems to be no risk that
a nation should do so。 Though in every country there are many
people who spend upon such liquors more than they can afford；
there are always many more who spend less。 It deserves to be
remarked too； that； if we consult experience； the cheapness of
wine seems to be a cause； not of drunkenness； but of sobriety。
The inhabitants of the wine countries are in general the soberest
people in Europe； witness the Spainards； the Italians； and the
inhabitants of the southern provinces of France。 People are
seldom guilty of excess in what is their daily fare。 Nobody
affects the character of liberality and good fellowship by being
profuse of a liquor which is as cheap as small beer。 On the
contrary； in the countries which； either from excessive heat or
cold； produce no grapes； and where wine consequently is dear and
a rarity； drunkenness is a common vice； as among the northern
nations； and all those who live between the tropics； the negroes；
for example； on the coast of Guinea。 When a French regiment comes
from some of the northern provinces of France； where wine is
somewhat dear； to be quartered in the southern； where it is very
cheap； the soldiers； I have frequently heard it observed are at
first debauched by the cheapness and novelty of good wine； but
after a few months' residence； the greater part of them become as
sober as the rest of the inhabitants。 Were the duties upon
foreign wines； and the excises upon malt； beer； and ale to be
taken away all at once； it might； in the same manner； occasion in
Great Britain a pretty general and temporary drunkenness among
the middling and inferior ranks of people； which would probably
be soon followed by a permanent and almost universal sobriety。 At
present drunkenness is by no means the vice of people of fashion；
or of those who can easily afford the most expensive liquors。 A
gentleman drunk with ale has scarce ever been seen among us。 The
restraints upon the wine trade in Great Britain； besides； do not
so much seem calculated to hinder the people from going； if I may
say so； to the alehouse； as from going where they can buy the
best and cheapest liquor。 They favour the wine trade of Portugal；
and discourage that of France。 The Portugese； it is said； indeed；
are better customers for our manufactures than the French； and
should therefore be encouraged in preference to them。 As they
give us their custom； it is pretended； we should give them ours。
The sneaking arts of underling tradesmen are thus erected into
political maxims for the conduct of a great empire： for it is the
most underling tradesmen only who make it a rule to employ
chiefly their own customers。 A great trader purchases his goods
always where they are cheapest and best； without regard to any
little interest of this kind。
By such maxims as these； however； nations have been taught
that their interest consisted in beggaring all their neighbours。
Each nation has been made to look with an invidious eye upon the
prosperity of all the nations with which it trades； and to
consider their gain as its own loss。 Commerce； which ought
naturally to be； among nations； as among individuals； a bond of
union and friendship； has become the most fertile source of
discord and animosity。 The capricious ambition of kings and
ministers has not； during the present and the preceding century；
been more fatal to the repose of Europe than the impertinent
jealousy of merchants and manufacturers。 The violence and
injustice of the rulers of mankind is an ancient evil； for which；
I am afraid； the nature of human affairs can scarce admit of a
remedy。 But the mean rapacity； the monopolizing spirit of
merchants and manufacturers； who neither are； nor ought to be；
the rulers of mankind； though it cannot perhaps be corrected may
very easily be prevented from disturbing the tranqu