democracy in america-1- 第21部分

＇Footnote　i：　See　〃The　Town…Officer；〃　especially　at　the　words　Selectmen；　Assessors；　Collectors；　Schools；　Surveyors　of　Highways。　　I　take　one　example　in　a　thousand：　the　State　prohibits　travelling　on　the　Sunday；　the　tything…men；　who　are　town…officers；　are　specially　charged　to　keep　watch　and　to　execute　the　law。　See　the　Laws　of　Massachusetts；　vol。　i。　p。　410。

The　selectmen　draw　up　the　lists　of　electors　for　the　election　of　the　Governor；　and　transmit　the　result　of　the　ballot　to　the　Secretary　of　the　State。　See　Act　of　February　24；　1796：　Id。；　vol。　i。　p。　488。＇

＇Footnote　j：　Thus；　for　instance；　the　selectmen　authorize　the　construction　of　drains；　point　out　the　proper　sites　for　slaughter…　houses　and　other　trades　which　are　a　nuisance　to　the　neighborhood。　　See　the　Act　of　June　7；　1785：　Id。；　vol。　i。　p。　193。＇

＇Footnote　k：　The　selectmen　take　measures　for　the　security　of　the　public　in　case　of　contagious　diseases；　conjointly　with　the　justices　of　the　peace。　　See　Act　of　June　22；　1797；　vol。　i。　p。　539。＇

It　results　from　what　we　have　said　that　in　the　State　of　Massachusetts　the　administrative　authority　is　almost　entirely　restricted　to　the　township；　*l　but　that　it　is　distributed　among　a　great　number　of　individuals。　　In　the　French　commune　there　is　properly　but　one　official　functionary；　namely；　the　Maire；　and　in　New　England　we　have　seen　that　there　are　nineteen。　　These　nineteen　functionaries　do　not　in　general　depend　upon　one　another。　　The　law　carefully　prescribes　a　circle　of　action　to　each　of　these　magistrates；　and　within　that　circle　they　have　an　entire　right　to　perform　their　functions　independently　of　any　other　authority。　　Above　the　township　scarcely　any　trace　of　a　series　of　official　dignitaries　is　to　be　found。　　It　sometimes　happens　that　the　county　officers　alter　a　decision　of　the　townships　or　town　magistrates；　*m　but　in　general　the　authorities　of　the　county　have　no　right　to　interfere　with　the　authorities　of　the　township；　*n　except　in　such　matters　as　concern　the　county。

＇Footnote　l：　I　say　almost；　for　there　are　various　circumstances　in　the　annals　of　a　township　which　are　regulated　by　the　justice　of　the　peace　in　his　individual　capacity；　or　by　the　justices　of　the　peace　assembled　in　the　chief　town　of　the　county；　thus　licenses　are　granted　by　the　justices。　　See　the　Act　of　February　28；　1787；　vol。　i。　p。　297。＇

＇Footnote　m：　Thus　licenses　are　only　granted　to　such　persons　as　can　produce　a　certificate　of　good　conduct　from　the　selectmen。　　If　the　selectmen　refuse　to　give　the　certificate；　the　party　may　appeal　to　the　justices　assembled　in　the　Court　of　Sessions；　and　they　may　grant　the　license。　　See　Act　of　March　12；　1808；　vol。　ii。　p。　186。

The　townships　have　the　right　to　make　by…laws；　and　to　enforce　them　by　fines　which　are　fixed　by　law；　but　these　by…laws　must　be　approved　by　the　Court　of　Sessions。　　See　Act　of　March　23；　1786；　vol。　i。　p。　254。＇

＇Footnote　n：　In　Massachusetts　the　county　magistrates　are　frequently　called　upon　to　investigate　the　acts　of　the　town　magistrates；　but　it　will　be　shown　further　on　that　this　investigation　is　a　consequence；　not　of　their　administrative；　but　of　their　judicial　power。＇　

The　magistrates　of　the　township；　as　well　as　those　of　the　county；　are　bound　to　communicate　their　acts　to　the　central　government　in　a　very　small　number　of　predetermined　cases。　*o　But　the　central　government　is　not　represented　by　an　individual　whose　business　it　is　to　publish　police　regulations　and　ordinances　enforcing　the　execution　of　the　laws；　to　keep　up　a　regular　communication　with　the　officers　of　the　township　and　the　county；　to　inspect　their　conduct；　to　direct　their　actions；　or　to　reprimand　their　faults。　There　is　no　point　which　serves　as　a　centre　to　the　radii　of　the　administration。

＇Footnote　o：　The　town　committees　of　schools　are　obliged　to　make　an　annual　report　to　the　Secretary　of　the　State　on　the　condition　of　the　school。　　See　Act　of　March　10；　1827；　vol。　iii。　p。　183。＇


Chapter　V：　Necessity　Of　Examining　The　Condition　Of　The　States　…　Part　II

What；　then；　is　the　uniform　plan　on　which　the　government　is　conducted；　and　how　is　the　compliance　of　the　counties　and　their　magistrates　or　the　townships　and　their　officers　enforced？　　In　the　States　of　New　England　the　legislative　authority　embraces　more　subjects　than　it　does　in　France；　the　legislator　penetrates　to　the　very　core　of　the　administration；　the　law　descends　to　the　most　minute　details；　the　same　enactment　prescribes　the　principle　and　the　method　of　its　application；　and　thus　imposes　a　multitude　of　strict　and　rigorously　defined　obligations　on　the　secondary　functionaries　of　the　State。　The　consequence　of　this　is　that　if　all　the　secondary　functionaries　of　the　administration　conform　to　the　law；　society　in　all　its　branches　proceeds　with　the　greatest　uniformity：　the　difficulty　remains　of　compelling　the　secondary　functionaries　of　the　administration　to　conform　to　the　law。　　It　may　be　affirmed　that；　in　general；　society　has　only　two　methods　of　enforcing　the　execution　of　the　laws　at　its　disposal：　a　discretionary　power　may　be　entrusted　to　a　superior　functionary　of　directing　all　the　others；　and　of　cashiering　them　in　case　of　disobedience；　or　the　courts　of　justice　may　be　authorized　to　inflict　judicial　penalties　on　the　offender：　but　these　two　methods　are　not　always　available。

The　right　of　directing　a　civil　officer　presupposes　that　of　cashiering　him　if　he　does　not　obey　orders；　and　of　rewarding　him　by　promotion　if　he　fulfils　his　duties　with　propriety。　　But　an　elected　magistrate　can　neither　be　cashiered　nor　promoted。　　All　elective　functions　are　inalienable　until　their　term　is　expired。　　In　fact；　the　elected　magistrate　has　nothing　either　to　expect　or　to　fear　from　his　constituents；　and　when　all　public　offices　are　filled　by　ballot　there　can　be　no　series　of　official　dignities；　because　the　double　right　of　commanding　and　of　enforcing　obedience　can　never　be　vested　in　the　same　individual；　and　because　the　power　of　issuing　an　order　can　never　be　joined　to　that　of　inflicting　a　punishment　or　bestowing　a　reward。

The　communities　therefore　in　which　the　secondary　functionaries　of　the　government　are　elected　are　perforce　obliged　to　make　great　use　of　judicial　penalties　as　a　means　of　administration。　　This　is　not　evident　at　first　sight；　for　those　in　power　are　apt　to　look　upon　the　institution　of　elective　functionaries　as　one　concession；　and　the　subjection　of　the　elected　magistrate　to　the　judges　of　the　land　as　another。　　They　are　equally　averse　to　both　these　innovations；　and　as　they　are　more　pressingly　solicited　to　grant　the　former　than　the　latter；　they　accede　to　the　election　of　the　magistrate；　and　leave　him　independent　of　the　judicial　power。　　Nevertheless；　the　second　of　these　measures　is　the　only　thing　that　can　possibly　counterbalance　the　first；　and　it　will　be　found　that　an　elective　authority　which　is　not　subject　to　judicial　power　will；　sooner　or　later；　either　elude　all　control　or　be　destroyed。　　The　courts　of　justice　are　the　only　possible　medium　between　the　central　power　and　the　administrative　bodies；　they　alone　can　compel　the　elected　functionary　to　obey；　without　violating　the　rights　of　the　elector。　　The　extension　of　judicial　power　in　the　political　world　ought　therefore　to　be　in　the　exact　ratio　of　the　extension　of　elective　offices：　if　these　two　institutions　do　not　go　hand　in　hand；　the　State　must　fall　into　anarchy　or　into　subjection。

It　has　always　been　remarked　that　habits　of　legal　business　do　not　render　men　apt　to　the　exercise　of　administrative　authority。　　The　Americans　have　borrowed　from　the　English；　their　fathers；　the　idea　of　an　institution　which　is　unknown　upon　the　continent　of　Europe：　I　allude　to　that　of　the　Justices　of　the　Peace。　　The　Justice　of　the　Peace　is　a　sort　of　mezzo　termine　between　the　magistrate　and　the　man　of　the　world；　between　the　civil　officer　and　the　judge。　A　justice　of　the　peace　is　a　well…informed　citizen；　though　he　is　not　necessarily　versed　in　the　knowledge　of　the　laws。　　His　office　simply　obliges　him　to　execute　the　police　regulations　of　society；　a　task　in　which　good　sense　and　integrity　are　of　more　avail　than　legal　science。　　The　justice　introduces　into　the　administration　a　certain　taste　for　established　forms　and　publicity；　which　renders　him　a　most　unserviceable　instrument　of　despotism；　and；　on　the　other　hand；　he　is　not　blinded　by　those　superstitions　which　render　legal　officers　unfit　members　of　a　government。　　The　Americans　have　adopted　the　system　of　the　English　justices　of　the　peace；　but　they　have　deprived　it　of　that　aristocratic　character　which　is　discernible　in　the　mother…country。　　The　Governor　of　Massachusetts　*p　appoints　a　certain　number　of　justices　of　the　peace　in　every　county；　whose　functions　last　seven　years。　*q　He　further　designates　three　individuals　from　amongst　the　whole　body　of　justices　who　form　in　each　county　what　is　called　the　Court　of　Sessions。　　The　justices　take　a　personal　share　in　public　business；　they　are　sometimes　entrusted　with　administrative　functions　in　conjunction　with　elected　officers；　*r　they　sometimes　constitute　a　tribunal；　before　which　the　magistrates　summarily　prosecute　a　refractory　citizen；　or　the　citizens　inform　against　the　abuses　of　the　magistrate。　　But　it　is　in　the　Court　of　Sessions　that　they　exercise　their　most　important　functions。　　This　court　meets　twice　a　year　in　the　county　town；　in　Massachusetts　it　is　empowered　to　enforce　the　obedience　of　the　greater　number　*s　of　public　officers。　*t　It　must　be　observed；　that　in　the　State　of　Massachusetts　the　Court　of　Sessions　is　at　the　same　time　an　administrative　body；　properly　so　called；　and　a　political　tribunal。　　It　has　been　asserted　that　the　county　is　a　purely　administrative　division。　　The　Court　of　Sessions　presides　over　that　small　number　of　affairs　which；　as　they　concern　several　townships；　or　all　the　townships　of　the　county　in　common；　cannot　be　entrusted　to　any　one　of　them　in　particular。　*u　In　all　that　concerns　county　business　the　duties　of　the　Court　of　Sessions　are　purely　administrative；　and　if　in　its　investigations　it　occasionally　borrows　the　forms　of　judicial　procedure；　it　is　only　with　a　view　to　its　own　information；　*v　or　as　a　guarantee　to　the　community　over　which　it　presides。　　But　when　the　administration　of　the　township　is　brought　before　it；　it　always　acts　as　a　judicial　body；　and　in　some　few　cases　as　an　official　assembly。

＇Footnote　p：　We　shall　hereafter　learn　what　a　Go